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COLLEGE 


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^  Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 

CORN— PART    ONE 

ji 


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THE 


Correspondence    College 

of  Agriculture 


CORN— Part  I 


History,  Types  and   v  arieties  of  Corn 

By    HARRY    B.    POTTER,    B.  S. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Crops 
in  Iowa  State  College 


This  is  the  First  ofja  Series  of  Four  Books    giving    a    Complete    Course    of    Instruction 

on  Corn. 


COPYRIGHT,  1910 
Ihi  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroug^hly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing:  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  intelligent  corn 
grower  to  know.  For  your  own  good  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


Part  I— CORN 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  study  of  a  crop,  such  as  corn  has  become,  involves  a  con- 
sideration of  many  complex,  yet  interesting-^  items  which  include 
figures,  facts  and  ideas.  In  the  case  where  figures  are  involved  to 
any  great  extent  we  generally  have  a  study  which  might  be 
classed  as  economics.  Where  facts  are  a  part  of  our  Avork  there 
are  features  of  agricultural  progress  emphasized  by  accurate  data 
secured,  as  a  rule,  by  some  experiment  station.  Classed  under 
ideas  are  those  generally  accepted  opinions  which  in  most  cases 
are  both  practical  and  practicable,  and  yet  which  have  never  been 
made  a  matter  of  definite  experimentation  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining to  what  extent,  if  at  all,  they  are  really  money-making 
schemes.  In  other  words,  we  have  had  ideas  for  many  years  as  to 
how  corn  should  be  treated.  The  Indians  had  ideas  before  we  did. 
Some  of  these  ideas,  as  the  years  of  agricultural  development 
passed,  were  placed  under  the  perfect  control  of  experienced  men. 
As  a  result  of  their  work,  which  took  place  (as  has  been  saidj 
usually  on  experimental  farms,  there  exist  today  certain  facts 
which  will  stand  the  test  of  the  most  careful  critic.  As  a  result 
of  this  transition  from  ideas  to  facts  there  has  been  a  history  laid 
down  which  shows  where  corn  has  traveled  in  its  course,  why  it 
has  developed  in  certain  well  defined  sections  to  such  an  extent, 
why  the  development  in  two  sections  has  not  been  the  same,  nor 
like  the   change   in   any  other  section.     These   matters   of  history 

^*Hare  given  to  us   more  or  less   in  figures,  all  of  which  point  to  the 

•">-<■  development  of  one  of  the  greatest  world  crops. 

to 


CORN 


PLATE  I— A  Good  Ear  of  Corn 
This  is  an  ear  of  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  and  shows  remarkable  uniformity. 

Iowa  State  Colleg-e. 


CORN  5 

Corn  as  a  World  Crop. 

No  one  doubts  the  place  of  corn  as  a  world  crop.  Every  na- 
tion has  been  raising-  it  for  years  past,  and  as  the  history  of  agri- 
culture  advances  there  seems  to  be  a  greater  eagerness  on  the  part 
of  all  to  participate  in  the  raising  of  corn,  our  greatest  cereal.  A 
comparison  of  the  years  1904-1908  will  show  how  all  nations  are 
concerned.  The  following  table  gives  for  the  above  years  the  total 
yield  in  million  bushels  for  each  continent : 

1904  1905  1906  1907  1908 

Europe    304  4^0  608  490  528 

North  America 2,576  2,812  3,021  2,686  2,762 

South  America   180  146  199  79  143 

Australasia .11  9  9  11  9 

Africa    59  38  38  42  o7 

Total.... 3.110     3,445     3,875     3.308     3,479 

This  table  l^rings  out  the  importance  of  corn  as  a  whole  crop, 
since  the  annual  yield  is  around  three  and  one-half  billion  bushels, 
on  an  area  of  about  one  hundred   and  thirty-five   million  acres. 

The  folloAving  table  gives,  for  the  continents,  the  amount  of 
land  under  corn  for  years  1904-1908,  in  million  acres  : 

1904  1905  1906  1907  1908 

Europe    24  24  25  26  25 

North  America   93  94  97  lOO  102 

South  America   5  6            7  8            7 

Australasia    3  .3           .3  .3           .3 

Africa    2  2            2  2            2 


Total : 124.3     126.3     131.3     136.3     136.3 

North  America  stands  out  from  among  all  of  the  rest  in 
acreage  and  yield.  Likewise  the  United  States  of  all  the  North 
American  countries  is  the  one  where  corn  is  most  popular. 

Rank  of  the  United   States. 

The  table  below  shows  how  the  United  States  ranks  in  yield. 
If  acreage  were  given,  the  same  general  ratio  of  countries  would 
be  shown.     Figures  are  given  in  million  bushels  : 


CORN  7 

1904  1905  1906  1907  1908 

United  States   2.468  2.708  2,927  2,593  2,669 

Canada   20  21  24  23  23 

Mexico 88  83  70  70  70 


CHART  II 

Comparative  Acreage  of  all  Cereals  in  the  United  States,  1909 


10 


MILLIONS  OF  ACRES 

Per  Cent 
20      30      40      50      60      70       80      90     100    HO^Irp^^^i 


Corn 

H 

. 

■1 

H 

H 

M 

H 

H 

■i 

H 

M 

OI     XOld.1 

53.8 

Wheat 

im 

^ 

^ 

^ 

■ 

_23.2 

Oats 

^^ 

^ 

^ 

■ 

_16.2 

Barley 

Flax 

__3.4 

m 
■ 
1 
1 

1.4 

Rye 

9 

Stickwheat 

3 

Rice 

.3 

AVith  these  fig-iires  before  us,  the  importance  of  corn  as  a 
crop  among  all  nations  is  very  evident,  and  when  we  consider 
that  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  crop  of  the  world  is  raised  in 
North  America  and  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  corn  of  North  Amer- 
ica is  raised  in  the  United  States,  it  is  also  evident  that  the 
United  States  has  a  great  responsibility  as  an  example  for  other 
nations.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  then  that  we  will  find  in  some 
of  the  newspapers  of  worth  such  statements  as  these:  "Imagine 
if  you  can  what  a  corn  crop  of  3,121,391,000  bushels  for  this  year 
with  reserve  holdings  amounting  to  119,056,000  bushels  means  to 
this  country.  The  Agricultural  Department  Report,  issued 
Wednesday,  is  astounding.  It  simply  runs  ahead  of  our  fondest 
hopes  and  establishes  the  farms  of  America  as  greater  than  ever 
the  productive  basis  of  real  prosperity.     Three  billion  bushels  of 


CORN 


Scutellum 


Tip 
Starch 


Tip  Cap 


Plate  2— The  Physical  Parts  of  the  Corn  Kernel 
Represents  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  kernel,   germ  laid  ha.re. —Bou'inan 

and  Cross/ey. 


CORN  9 

corn  is  equivalent  to  a  per  capita  distribution  of  thirty-five  bushels 
for  each  person  in  America.  The  country's  prosperity  is  assured 
by  this  new  record  crop.  It  may  be  a  more  o^eneral  prosperity 
where  the  increased  volume  will  more  than  offset  the  high  net  re- 
turns of  recent  years,  when  a  smaller  crop  sold  at  a  greater  price 
per  bushel." 

In  other  words,  this  enormous  yield  of  corn  in  the  United 
States  will  mean  more  dollars  in  the  pockets  of  more  people  than 
ever  before.  Chart  I.  bring's  out  graphically  the  relation  of  this 
corn  crop  to  the  continents  of  this  world  and  indicates  very  clearly 
where  the  United  States  stands  as  a  corn  growing  nation. 


Corn  Among  other  Cereals, 

But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  consider  the  United  States  and  the 
corn  crop  alone.  If  we  take  the  comparative  acreage  of  the 
cereals  as  shown  by  Chart  II.,  we  get  a  graphic  representation 
of  the  value  of  corn  among  the  other  cereals  raised  in  the  United 
States.  The  average  person  fails  to  realize  the  importance  of  the 
corn  crop ;  especially  if  he  lives  in  a  wheat-growing  section. 


TABLE  I.. 

Acreage  of  Corn  as  Compared  with  Total  Acreage  of  All  Farm 

Land  in  Each  of  the  Ten  Leading  States  in  Its 

Production  in  1900, 

Acres  of 
State.  Farm  Land. 

Illinois    32,794,728 

Iowa    ■ 34,574,337 

Missouri     33,997,873 

Nebraska    , 29,911,779 

Indiana 21,619,623 

Texas    125,807,017 

Kansas .' 41,662,970 

Ohio    24,501,985 

Oklahoma 15,719,258 

Kentucky   21,979,422 


Acres 

Per 

in  Corn. 

Cent. 

7,139,898 

21.8 

8,048,946 

23.3 

6,453,943 

18.9 

8,093,464 

27.1 

4,031,600 

19.1 

4,553,495 

3.6 

8,624,770 

20.7 

2,888,924 

11.8 

544,000 

3.5 

2,664,124 

12.1 

lO 


CORN 


CHART  III 

Production  of  Corn  in  the  Ten  Leading  States,   1909 


Illinois 

Iowa 

Missouri,., 

Indiana 

Nebraska  . 

Kansas 

Ohio 

Texas     

Kentucky. 
Oklahoma 


MILLIONS  OF  BUSHELS 

100  200  300  400    Per  Cent  of 

50  SO  50  SO  Tot'l  Prod'ctn 


^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

■ 

13.3 

IB 

H 

H 

■ 

104 

Mm 

" 

■ 

7.7 

7.1 

i[a 

■ 

6.9 

B 

5.5 

H 

5.5 

4.-4 

1 

.   _.               3.7 

3.6 

TABLE  II. 

Production  and  Population. 

Total  Production  Corn  per 

Year.                              Population,     in  U.  S.  (bushels)  Capita  (bus.) 

1850 23,191,876            592,071,104  25.5 

1860 31,443,321            838,792,742  26.6 

1870.. 38,558,471             760,944,549  19.7 

1880 50,155,783          1,754,591,676  34.9 

1890 62,622,190         2,122,327,547  33.8 

1900 75,997,873         2,666,440,279  35.0 


CORN  II 

Prominent  Corn-Growing  States. 

As  the  United  States,  then,  is  the  first  amoni(  all  nations  in 
the  production  of  corn,  it  is  only  natural  to  turn  to  the  states 
which  make  this  fact  true.  In  Table  I.  will  be  noted  some  facts 
regarding-  the  ten  leading  states  in  corn  production  in  1900.  It  is 
not  always  fair  to  consider  one  fact  alone,  but  when  it  is  realized 
that  a  state  is  willing  to  devote  a  high  percentage  of  farm  lands 
to  corn,  the  state  must  be  considered  a  corn-producing  one.  The 
figures  given  are  for  the  year  1900,  and  while  those  figures  are 
not  changing  particularly  for  some  of  the  highest  states,  they  are 
materially  changing  for  a  great  many  of  the  states  not  now  among 
the  so-called  corn  belt.  Chart  III.  represents  the  common  way  of 
comparing  states ;  namely,  b}'^  taking  the  total  production  of  each 
state,  reg'ardless  of  the  amount  of  land  devoted  to  that  work.  The 
per  cents,  given  in  this  chart  re])resents  the  per  cents,  of  total  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States.  This  is  more  readily  shown  by 
Chart  IV.  and  Chart  V.  At  the  same  time  that  these  graphic  pic- 
tures are  illustrating  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  states 
as  corn  producers,  they  show  the  enormous  change  in  the  total 
production  as  far  as  the  United  States  is  concerned  since  the 
decade   1869-1878. 

Corn  per  Capita. 

As  the  corn  crop  is  intended  to  serve  mankind  in  one  way  or 
another,  it  is  always  natural  to  compare  the  yield  with  the  popu- 
lation. Table  II.  gives  the  increase  in  population  since  the  year 
1850  and  besides  it  the  total  production  of  corn  in  the  United 
States  since  that  time.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  corn  per  capita 
-  has  g'radually  increased  until  it  has  reached  the  large  amount  of 
thirty-five  bushels  for  each  person  in  the  United  States.  This 
means  that  corn  alone  adds  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  to  the  amount 
of  money  available  for  each  individual. 

More  Corn  to  the  Acre  Desired. 

But  after  all  these  facts  are  considered  and  we  realize  the  im- 
portance of  corn  as  a  world  crop,  as  a  crop  in  the  United  States; 
as  a  crop  in  our  own  state,  and  as  a  crop  in  our  own  county,  we 
turn    to   any   teaching  'which   will   help    us    raise    that    crop    more 


I  2 


CORN 


CHART  IV. 


CHART  V. 


CORN 


13 


CHART  VI 

Yield  Per  Acre  in  the  United  States  from  1866-1909 
BUSHELS 
5       10      15      20      25      30  Ave.  Bu. 


1866-1870___ 

^ 

■ 

■ 

- 

- 

H 

24.6 

1870-1880. __ 

m^ll 

27.1 

1880-1890. __ 

" 

■ 

■ 

^m 

24.1 

1890-1900. __ 

■■ 

■■ 

WM 

wmm 

24.1 

1900-1909. . _ 

H 

H 

wm 

HH 

■ 

25.8 

1909___ 

■i 

tm 

Hi 

^^ 

1 

25.5 

profitably.  It  is  not  uncommon  nowadays  to  hear  lectures  on 
corn,  and  the  main  topic  of  discussion  at  these  lectures  is  how  to 
produce  more  and  better  corn  to  the  acre.  Fig-ures  and  statistics 
will  not  enable  us  to  do  that  work.  They  only  act  as  incentives 
for  greater  effort  on  our  part ;  and  that  effort  is  to  be  expended 
with  the  idea  of  raisino-  more  corn  to  the  acre. 


Yield  per  Acre  in  the  United  States. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  the  yield  per  acre 
in  average  figures  in  the  United  States  from  1866  to  1909.  This 
is  shown  in  Chart  VI.  It  must  be  borne  .in  mind  that  average 
figures  are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  justly  used,  and  while  in- 
stances may  be  known  where  100  bushels,  and  over,  of  corn  are 
raised  on  an  acre  of  land,  it  is  also  known  when  we  get  the  aver- 
age figures  that  there  must  be  some  exceedingly  low  yields  to 
bring  the  average  so   low. 


Yield  per  Acre,  Locally. 

It  is  not  a  very  bad  comparison  to  use  only  the  figures  giv- 
ing the  average  yield '  per  acre ;  and,  the  student  can  do  this  not 
only  in  comparing  his  state  with  other  states,  but  his  county  or 
township  with  other  counties   or  townships.     Table   III.   is  given 


14 


CORN 


with  the  idea  of  showing  how  this  comparison  can  be  made.  The 
first  column  represents  figures  which  are  averages.  The  second 
column  shows  what  the  crop  did  in  1909.  Getting  a  comparison 
of  this  kind,  one  is  able  to  see  whether  his  particular  locality  is 
achieving  much  along  the  lines  of  corn  improvement. 

To  sum  up  all  that  has  been  said  along  these  lines  of  sta- 
tistics and  figures,  Table  IV.  will  be  used.  This  chart  represents 
various  phases  of  the  question  of  which  state  leads  in  the  pro- 
duction of  corn.  Data  for  1909  are  used  and  the  states  ranked 
according  to  acreage,  but  there  are  other  figures  in  the  columns 
which  might  perhaps  have  as  well  been  used  to  bring  out  the 
points  at  hand. 


TABLE  III. 
Average  Yield  per  Acre,  1879-1908  and  1909. 


Rani 
1 

2 

o 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


Bush 
1879- 
1908. 

.38.9 
.38.0 


:.   State  or  Territory 

New  Hampshire. 

Ohio 

Iowa 37.9 

Vermont   37.9 

Massachusetts   .  .  .  37.2 

Illinois 36.9 

Connecticut    35.9 

Maine    3S.3 

Indiana    34.4 

Pennsylvania   ....33.7 
New  Jersey    .....33.4 

Nebraska   33.1 

Wisconsin   32.9 

Rhode  Island  ....32.6 

Missouri    31.9 

Michigan     31.0 

California    30.8 

Dis.  of  Columbia. 30.7 

Minnesota     30.0 

New  York 30.3 

Kansas     29.1 

Maryland    28.4 

Indian   Territory.  .26.0 

Idaho   25.3 

Kentucky    25.3 


els 

1909. 

35.1 
39.5 
31.5 
37.0 
38.0 
35.9 
41.0 
38.0 
40.0 
32.0 
32.7 
24.8 
33.0 
33.1 
26.4 
35.4 
34.8 

34'8 
34.5 
19.9 
31.4 

•30.6 
29.0 


Rank. 


Bushels 
1879- 
State  or  Territory.   1908.    19C9. 


26  Nevada    .  ■. 25 

27  West  Virginia..  .  .24, 

28  Oklahoma^ 23 

29  South  Dakota.... 23 


30  Arizona   23 

31  Oregon    22 

32  Tennessee 22 

33  Delaware 22 

34  Montana    22 

35  Washinp'ton    20 


36     New  Mexico. 


.20, 


37  Virginia     19 

38  North  Dakota 19 

39  Texas   ...., 19 

40  Arkansas    18 

41  Utah   18 

42  Wyoming   19 

43  Colorado   17. 

44  Mississippi    15, 

45  Louisiana    15. 

46  Alabama    13. 

47  North  Carolina.  .  .13 

48  South'  Carolina.  ..  11. 

49  Georgia   10. 

50  Florida 9. 


31.4 
17.0 
31.7 
32.0 
30.7 
22.0 
31.0 
35.0 
27.8 
31.3 
23.2 
3l'0 
15.0 
18.0 
31.4 
28.0 
24.2 
14.5 
23.0 
13.5 
16.8 
16.6 
13.9 
12.6 


CORN 


15 


Note:— All  states  except  Oklahoma,  South  Dakota,  Wyoming, 
Nevada  and  District  of  Columbia  are  figured  for  the  total  30-year 
basis. 

TABLE   IV. 
Rank  in  Corn  Production,  1909. 


^_, 

0 

j; 

3 

m ' 

Hg. 

6 

K 

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be 

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fcc^ 

0 
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0 

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<u 

t-^ 

1;  t. 

<u 

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PhP 

<aH 

Ph 

r^ 

C! 

Illinois     . . 

10,300,000     . 

.     370 

.$192,280,000 

13.3 

35.9 

$0.62 

$18.67     . 

Iowa     .... 

9,200,000     . 

.     290 

142,002,000 

10.4 

31.5 

.58 

15.44     . 

Missouri    . 

8,100.000     . 

.     214 

126.166,000 

1.1 

26.4 

.66 

15.58     . 

Indiana    .  . 

4.913,000     . 

.      197 

98,260.000 

1 A 

40.0 

.64 

20.00     . 

Nebraska  . 

7,825,000     . 

.     194 

97.030,000 

6.9 

24.8 

.55 

12.40     . 

Kansas    . . 

7750.000     . 

.     154 

83,292.000 

5.5 

19.9 

.61 

10.75     . 

Ohio     

3,875,000     . 

.     153 

85,715.000 

5.5 

39.5 

.69 

11.40     . 

Texas     . .  . 

8,150,000     . 

.     122 

92.910.000 

4.4 

15.0 

.75 

11.40     . 

Kentucky  . 

3,568,000     . 

.     103 

64.153,000 

3.7 

29.0 

.IZ 

17.98     . 

Oklahoma. 

5,950.000     . 

.     101 

55,632.000 

3.6 

IS.O 

.62 

9.35     . 

^     )    -■> 

It  is  interesting-,  in  noting  the  columns  of  Table  IV.,  to  take 
into  account  the  blank  colums  of  "%  of  Farm  Lands"  and 
"Quality."  The  former  figures  were  difficult  to  secure  accurately, 
so  the  column  was  left  blank.  The  suggestion,  however,  of  that 
item  in  the  comparison  is  present.  The  column  of  data  regarding 
"Quality"  would  be  well  nigh  impossible  of  expressing,  but  that 
there  is  a  difference  in  quality,  in  corn  from  one  state  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  another,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  And  so  a 
careful  inspection  of  the  market  reports,  giving  grades  on  corn 
from  different  places,  might  well  be  made. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISE. 

Take  the  last  Year  Book  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture that  you  can  secure  and  find  from  the  fig'ures  given  in  it 
whether  your  own  state  and  community  has  improved  to  any 
material   extent  in  the  work  it  has  been   doing  along  corn  grow- 


i6  .  CORN 

ing-.  A  letter  to  your  Congressman  will  secure  this  book  for  you, 
free  of  charge.  A  letter  to  your  Governor  will  determine  for  you 
whether  your  own  state  produces  a  State  Year  Book.  If  it  does, 
secure  one  of  these  books  and  a  closer  account  of  the  corn-pro- 
ducing- sections  of  your  district  can  be  found. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  CORN. 

Doubt  as  to  Its  Origin. 

As  was  said  in  the  introduction  of  the  work,  corn  has  made 
for  itself  a  history ;  one  which  perhaps  no  other  cereal  has  made, 
and  yet  we  are  not  exactly  sure  of  its  origin.  Some  have  said  that 
corn  originated  in  China.  Some  have  said  that  it  originated  in 
Mexico,  South  America,  and  some  would  even  have  the  crop  pro- 
duced first  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  But  it 
is  pretty  definitely  established  that  America  holds  first  claim  to 
the  crop  which  she  now  holds  first  claim  to  produce. 

DeCandolle's  Account. 

DeCandolle,  who  wrote  some  time  ago,  gave  a  history  of  corn 
which  is  pretty  generally  accepted,  at  least  it  can  be  said  of  him 
that  his  book  on  the  "Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants"  is  more  fre- 
quently quoted  than  any  other  book  along  the  same  line.  He  says 
of  corn  that  it  "is  of  American  origin  and  has  only  been  introduced 
into  the  old  world  since  the  discovery  of  the  new.  I  consider  these 
two  assertions  as  positive  in' spite  of  the  contrary  opinion  of  some 
authors  and  the  doubts  of  the  celebrated  agriculturist  Banofous,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  complete  treatise  on  maize. 
No  one  denies  that  maize  was  unknown  in  Europe  at  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  but  it  has  been  said  that  it  was  brought  from 
the  East  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  principal  argument  is  based 
upon  a  charter  of  the  Thirteenth  century,  published  by  Molinari, 
according  to  which  two  crusaders,  companions  in  arms  of  Boniface 
III.,  Marquis  of  Monferrat,  gave  in  1204  to  the  town  of  Incisa  a 
piece  of  the  true  cross  and  a  purse  containing  a  kind  of  seed  of  a 
golden  color  and  partly  white,  unknown  in  the  country  and 
brought  from  Australia,  where  it  was  called  meliga,  etc.  The  his- 
torian of  the  Crusades,  Michaux,  and  later  Daru  and  Sismondi, 
said  a  great  deal   about  this   charter,   but  the  botanist   Delile,   as 


CORN  i; 

well  as  Targionitozzetti  and  Bonafons  himself,  thought  that  the 
seed  in  question  might  belong  to  some  sorghum  and  not  to  maize. 
These  old  discussions  have  been  rendered  absurd  by  the  Comte 
de  Riant's  discovery  that  the  charter  of  Incisa  is  the  fabrication  of 
a  modern  impostor.  I  quote  this  instance  to  show  how  scholars 
who  are  not  naturalists  may  make  mistakes  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  names  of  plants ;  and  also  how  dangerous  it  is  to  rely  upon 
an  isolated  proof  in  historical  questions." 

This    characteristic    argument    follows    through    the    work    of 
DeCandolle   until   the   reader   comes   to   believe   that   Indian   corn 
or   maize,    notwithstanding  the   fact   that   it   was   grown   early    in 
Egypt  and  India  and   China,  came  from  America.     He  says  as  a 
conclusion  to  his  argument  that  "maize  is  not  a  native  of  the  old 
world.      It   became   rapidly   diffused    in    it   ^fter   the   discovery    of 
America,   and   this   very   rapidly   completes   the   proof  that   had   it 
existed  anywdiere  in  Asia  or  Africa,  it  would  have  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  agriculture  for  thousands  of  years.     We  shall  see 
that  the  facts  are  quite  contrary  to  these  in  America.     At  the  time 
"  of  the  discovery  of  the  new^  continent,  maize  was  one  of  the  sta- 
ples  of   its   agriculture,   from   the   La   Plata  valley   to   the   United 
States.     It  had  names  in  all  the  languages.     The  natives  planted 
it  around  their  temporary   dwellings   where   they   did  not  form  a 
fixed    population.      The    burial    mounds    of    the    natives    of    North 
America  who  preceded  those  of  our  day,  the  tombs  of  the  Incas, 
the  catacombs    of  Peru,  contain  ears  of  grains  of  maize,  just  as 
the   monuments   of   ancient    Egypt   contain    grains   of   barley    and 
wheat  and  millet  seed.     In  Mexico,  a  goddess  who   bore  a  name 
derived  from  that  of  maize  answered  to  the  Ceres  of  the  Greeks, 
for  the  first  fruits   of  the   maize  harvest  were   offered   to  her,  as 
the   first   fruits   of  our   cereals   to   the    Greek   goddess.     At   Cusco 
the  virgins  of  the  sun  offered  sacrifices  of  bread   made  from  In- 
dian   corn.      Nothing   is    better   calculated   to    show   the    antiquity 
and   generality   of   the   cultivation   of   a   plant    than   this    intimate 
connection    with    the    religious    rites    of    the    ancient    inhabitants. 
We   must  not,   however,   attribute   to   these   indications   the   same 
importance  in  America  as  in  the  old  world.     The   civilization  of 
the  Peruvians  under' the  Incas  and  that  of  the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs 
in  Mexico  has  not  the  extraordinary  antiquity  of  the  civilizations 
of  China,  Chaldea,  and  Egypt.     It  dates  at  earliest  from  the  be- 


i8  CORN 

ginning'  of  the  Christian  era;  but  the  cultivation  of  maize  is 
more  ancient  than  the  monuments,  to  judge  from  the  numerous 
varieties  of  the  species  found  in  them,  and  their  dispersal  into 
remote  regions." 


Corn   an   Old   Crop   to   America. 

And  so  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  corn  is  a  very  ancient 
crop.  In  America,  the  Indians,  of  course,  raised  much  of  it  be- 
fore the  vv^hite  man  came,  and  after  the  white  man  settled  in  this 
country  and  began  to^  conquer  one  place  after  another,  he,  of 
course,  learned  much  from  the  Indians  as  to  how  to  select  the 
best  ears  for  seed,  arid  how  and  when  to  plant  the  corn.  Of 
course,  their  ideas  were  very  crude.  The  Indians  usually  cleared 
a,  small  spot  and  the  squaws  did  the  planting  by  making  small 
holes  in  the  ground  with  a  stick  and  dropping  in  each  hole  the 
number  of  kernels  they  desired.  Sometimes  a  small  fish  would 
be  used  as  a  fertilizer.  In  the  fall  the  corn  would  be  picked  and 
stored  away  in  pits  dug  in  the  ground.  Such  methods  as  these 
we  have  reason  to  believe  were  used  by  the  early  settlers  of  this 
country,  but  the  native  ability  of  the  white  man  led  him  to  im- 
prove the  methods  in  vogue  among  the  Indians,  and  it  soon  be- 
came possible  for  him  to  cultivate  a  large  area  in  producing  the 
corn  that  he  desired. 


Work   of   the   Colonists. 

The  first  successful  attempt  of  the  English  to  cultivate  corn 
in  North  America  was  in  1608,  and  that  along  the  James  River 
in  Virginia.  Before  that  time,  there  must  have  been  some  fairly 
g-ood  corn  raised,  for,  soon  after  it,  as  many  as  thirty  acres  in 
one  piece  are  recorded.  It  is  said  that  as  early  as  1650  corn  to 
the  extent  of  600  bushels  was  exported  from  Savannah,  and  by 
1770  the  amount  exported  from  this  same  place  had  reached 
13,598  bushels.  From  this  time  on,  the  average  increased  very 
rapidly  until  we  have  the  enormous  figures  already  recorded.  The 
main  increase  in  yield  in  the  United  States  has  been  due  to  the 
increased  acreage.  Now  that  the  corn  acreage  is  practically  com- 
plete, it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  3aeld  per  acre. 


CORN  19 

THE  ORIGIN   OF  CORN. 

Directly  in  connection  with  the  history  of  corn  should  come 
the  origin  of  the  corn  plant.  For  long-  before  the  history  of  corn 
began,  the  history  of  the  corn  plant  was  in  the  making.  All 
plants  are  known  to  have  come  from  lower  forms  and  it  has  been 
the  effort  of  many  writers  to  ascertain  what  was  the  form  of  the 
plant  from  wdiich  the  present  corn  plant  came.  It  might  be  well 
to  note  a  few  things  which  can  be  seen  when  the  green  corn 
plant  is  developing.  We  have  developed  at  the  top  of  the  plant 
what  is  commonly  called  the  tassel.  Below  this  tassel,  some  dis- 
tance down  on  the  stalk,  we  have  the  ear  of  corn,  borne  on  a 
shank  much  the  same  as  any  fruit  would  be  borne  on  a  stem. 
The  leaves  of  the  corn  stalk  alternate  from  one  side  to  the  other 
the  entire  length  of  the  plant.  If  we  would  imagine  the  plant 
as  branching  at  every  place  where  the  leaves  originate,  we  would 
have  what  is  now  thought  to  be  the  parent  of  the  present  corn 
plant.  In  other  words,  the  corn  plant  came  from  a  very  much 
divided  and  branched  plant.  As  the  ear  developed,  the  lower 
branches,  which  were  practically  useless,  were  discarded,  became 
dwarfed,  and  of  no  use  whatever  to  the  plant.  Only  the  one 
branch,  namely,  that  on  which  the  larger  ear  w^as  developing, 
was  permitted  to  continue  growth.  This  ear,  or  surrounding- 
it,  were  branches  which  had  been  doing  the  same  work  that  the 
tassel  does.  The  tassel  had  been  occasionally  developing  kernels 
of  corn,  but  as  the  years  passed,,  the  tassel  developed  into  the 
form  we  now  have  it,  which  furnishes  pollen  and  does  nothing- 
else.  The  ear  developed  only  kernels  and  left  the  tassel  for  its 
work  of  pollenation.  As  a  result,  there  is  established  the  so- 
called  male  (tassel)  and  female  (ear)  parts  of  the  plant.  The 
closest  planty  which  we  have  today,  to  which  w^e  mig-ht  credit  the 
origin  of  corn  is  the  Teosinte  plant.  It  is  a  much  branched  plant 
bearing  the  seed  at  the  ends  of  all  the  branches. 

Since  the  ear  originally  was  a  tassel,  the  question  naturally 
arises,  how  is  it  that  there  is  always  an  even  number  of  rows  on 
the  ear  of  corn,  and  the  question  may  be  answered  by  saying"  that 
the  central  part  of  the  tassel  which  developed  into  the  ear  bears 
an  even  number  of  rows  of  flowers.  The  side  branches  of  the 
tassel  of  course  have  diminished  until  Ave  see  them  now  onlv  in 
freak  specimens  of  corn. 


20 


CORN 


Laboratory    Exercise. 

Secure  from  the  field  any  ears  which  seem  to  be  misformed. 
If  they  have  a  part  of  the  tassel  hanging-  to  them,  notice  the  way 
that  the  central  part  of  the  tassel  seems  to  have  developed  in  pro- 
portion to'  the  other  parts.  Many  freak  ears  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  corn  plant  producing  such  ears  is  going  back  to  the 
original  type  from  which  it  first  came. 

THE  BOTANY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT. 

The  Kernel. 

In  reality,  when  anyone  studies  corn,  or  any  crop  which  is 
cultivated  by  man,  they  are  studying  botany  in  one  phase  or  an- 
other. The  whole  purpose  of  all  plants  is  to  produce  seed  which 
will  have  the  power  to  reproduce  the  plant.  In  other  words,  the 
final  work  of  any  plant  is  the  production  of  seed.  Especially  is 
this  true  of  cereals.  And  so  the  study  of  the  kernel  itself,  when 
corn  is  being  considered,  is  of  a  very  great  deal  of  importance. 
Plate  2  represents  the  parts  of  the  corn  kernel.  Take  the  ex- 
ternal features  of  the  kernel  alone,  we  have  what  we  might  term 
two  parts :  the  germ,  in  which  lies  all  the  living  matter,  by  means 
of  which  the  plant  of  the  coming  year  is  able  to  start;  and  the 
endosperm,  in  which  the  food  material  is  stored.  The  diagram  of 
Plate  2  gives  these  parts  more  in  detail. 


Plate  3— Cross  Section  of  Kernel 
g,  germ;  fp,  floury  or  starchy  portion;  hp,  horny  or  corneous  portion 


CORN 


21 


The  Plant. 

Although  the  averag-e  person  does  not  think  of  corn  as  be- 
longing to  the  same  type  of  plants  as  oats  and  timothy,  yet  that 
is  true.  In  the  botanical  world  there  are  a  great  many  families 
of  plants.  One  of  the  largest  of  these  families  is  the  "grass" 
family,  known  as  "gramineae."  Into  this  family,  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  blue  grass,  timothy,  and  many  other  of  our 
common  farm  crops  fall.  These  plants  are  characterized  by  their 
hollow  stems,  their  fibrous  root  systems,  their  leaves  with  par- 
allel veins,  and  their  seeds  being  borne  in  small  leaf-like  struc- 
tures. 

Parts  of  Corn  Plant  and  Their  Uses. 

Root  Starts. — Each  one  of  the  parts  has  a  definite  use.  Be- 
fore giving  those  uses,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  into  detail  as  to 
the  general  structure  of  the  plant  itself.  As  soon  as  moisture 
surrounds  the  kernel,  the  embryo,  or  germ,  within  the  kernel,  be- 
gins to  swell  and  the  root  branch,  or  the  radicle,  breaks  through 
the  seed  coat  and  begins  its  way  into  the  soil.    This  radicle  at  its 


Plate  4 — Kernels  Germinating 

Primary  root  indicated  by  r.     In  lower  rigfht-hand  drawing-,  some  adventi- 
tious roots  are  showing. — Paminel,  Grasses  of  loiva. 


22  CORN 

tip  is  covered  by  a  cap  as  are  all  the  other  roots  which  develop 
later.  This  part  of  the  root  system,  that  is  the  cap,  is  known  as 
the  "root  cap"  and  acts  as  a  protection  as  the  root  works  its 
way   between   the   soil   particles. 

Beginning  of  Leaves. — Soon  after  the  radicle  develops  into 
the  root  which  we  know  as  the  primary  root,  the  plumule  or  the 
miniature  leaf  in  the  embryo  breaks  through  the  upper  part  of  the 
embryo  and  begins  the  formation  of  the  plant  above  ground.  This 
plant  unfolds  much  in  the  same  way  that  a  telescope  will  tmfold  ; 
and  it  grows  rapidly  to  its   full   height. 

The  Root  System. 

In  the  meantime,  the  roots  are  also  developing.  Just  above 
where  the  primary  root  is  attached  to  the  embryo  of  the  seed,  ad- 
ventitious roots  start.  These  adventitious  roots  grow  rapidly  and 
begin  tO'  take  plant  food  from  the  soil.  They  ramify  in  all  di- 
rections, attempting  to  accomplish  this  purpose  with  the  greatest 
ease.  Of  course,  before  the  time  that  they  are  able  to  take  plant 
food  readily  from  the  soil,  the  young  plantlet  must  draw  for  its 
supply  of  growing  material  upon  the  endosperm  of  the  seed  itself. 
As  soon  as  the  food  material  of  this  endosperm  is  exhausted,  and 
all  of  it  is  necessary  in  producing  the  young  plantlet,  there  is 
noticed  in  the  soil  nothing  but  the  seed  coat  of  the  original  kernel. 
Right  at  that  point  it  is  noticed  that  the  .adventitious  roots  are 
strongly  developed  and  also  that  the  primary  root  has  died.  That 
is,  the  root  which  came  out  directly  at  the  radicle  point  was  of 
no  service  after  the  development  of  adventitious  roots.  This  is 
true  of  the  grasses. 

Each  part  of  the  rootlet  will  be  seen  to  be  covered  with  fine 
hairs  which  are  called  root  hairs.  As  the  roots  are  pulled  from 
the  ground  these  root  hairs  obscure  themselevs  by  holding  a  large 
quantity  of  soil  to  the  rootlet.  Their  action  in  the  soil,  as  the 
plant  is  growing  and  developing  into  organs  of  usefulness,  is  to 
take  in  plant  food  which  has  been  dissolved  in  the  soil  for  its 
use.  In  the  meantime  all  of  the  rootlets  are  growing  still  farther 
into  the  soil,  guarded  as  they  are  by  the  root  caps  at  their  ex- 
tremities. As  soon  as  the  plant  food  is  absorbed  by  these  root 
hairs  it  is  taken  into  the  central  part  of  the  rootlet,  which  is  known 


CORN 


23 


as  the  central  cylinder,  and  carried  from  there  to  the  part  of  the 
plant  where  it  is  needed.  The  plant  itself,  partly  by  the  action  of 
the  roots  and  partly  by  its  own  action  above  ground,  has  been 
able  to  gTow  to  large  proportions  and  the  wind,  as  it  pushes  the 
plant  to  and  fro,  has  demanded  some  sort  of  protection  against  the 
breaking  of  the  stalk.  This  protection  is  seen  in  the  form  of  what 
are  called  brace  roots.  Brace  roots  are  nothing-  more  than  the 
ordinary  roots  of  the  plant.  The  plant_  is  made  up  from  top  to 
bottom  of  what  are  known  as  nodes  and  internodes,"  the  nodes 
being  those  parts  which  one  might  readily  call  joints  on  the 
plants,  and  the  internodes  being  the  parts  between  those  different 
joints.     These  brace  roots  that  come  out  of  the  plant  will  be  found 


Plate  5 — Corn  Roots  and  Stalk 
Brace  roots  are  seen.     Some  have  entered   and  have  become  feeding-  roots. 
The  split  stalk  at  the  right  shows  the  nodes  as  merely  partitions  of  the  stalk. 

— Iowa  State  College. 


24  CORN 

to  develop  at  the  nodes.  The  roots  below  the  ground  have  also 
developed  at  the  nodes.  If  these  brace  roots  enter  the  gTound  as 
they  sometimes  do  and  begin  to  send  out  their  small  branches  to 
all  parts  of  the  soil  they  will  have  the  same  use  as  the  under^ 
ground  roots ;  that  is,  the  taking-  of  plant  food  for  the  purpose  of 
adding  to  the  growing  plant.  But  the  brace  roots  also  have  the 
special  function  of  supporting  the  plant  and  it  is  pretty  generally 
thought  that  whether  the  brace  roots  touch  the  ground  or  not^ 
their  presence  and  the  fact  that  the  plant  shows  a  tendency  to 
develop  brace  roots  indicates  a  strong  system  of  roots  under 
ground,  and  this,  of  course,  would  mean  a  more  favorable  condi- 
tion for  any  plant. 

As  this  plant,  at  the  stage  when  the  brace  roots  are  devel- 
oped, has  become  cjuite  large,  the  prominent  features  of  all  of  the 
plant  are  noted.  First  of  all,  the  stem  is  hollow,  as  is  true  with 
other  grasses.  That  is,  there  is  a  material  much  harder  than  any 
of  the  rest  of  the  plant  on  the  outside  of  the  stalk,  so  that  if  a 
cross  section  of  the  stalk  is  made  a  circle  of  hard,  woody  material 
is  seen.  The  purpose  of  this  hollow  column  is  well  shown  in 
practically  all  buildings  of  any  size  whatsoever.  The  columns 
which  are  put  into  those  buildings  are  hollow.  Being  hollovy, 
they  offer,  a  greater  support  for  the  material  used  than  would 
otherwise  be  true.  So  it  is  with  the  corn  plant  and  with  the  oat 
plant.  The  hollow  stem  gives  a  greater  support,  which  is  needed 
when  the  ripened  ear  bears  down  with  all  its  force  iipon  the  plant 
below. 

Within  the  hollow  column  is  noted,  in  the  case  of  the  corn 
plant,  a  great  deal  of  bulky  material  which  we  term  the  pith. 
This  pith  has  two  functions,  primarily.  The  first,  perhaps,  is  to 
support  the  plant  from  injury  as  it  is  blown  by  the  winds.  The 
principle  is  shown  if  we  have  a  rubber  tube  well  filled  with  water 
and  one  that  is  not.  Perhaps  both  of  the  tubes  will  stand  upright 
when  there  is  no  pressure  from  the  outside,  but,  if  a  side  pressure 
is  given  to  both  tubes,  the  one  Avhich  has  the  least  amount  of 
water  will  bend  first.  As  another  example,  if  a  piece  of  paper  is 
made  into  a  cylinder,  unless  there  is  some  support  from  within 
pushing  outward  on  the  sides  of  the  tube,  these  sides  will  col- 
lapse if  any  great  pressure  is  brought  to  bear.  Corn,  since  it  is  a 
tall  plant,  must  resist  a  great  deal  of  the  action  of  the  wind,  and 


CORN 


25 


so  possesses  this  pith  which  constantly  pushes  outward  on  its 
walls.  The  pith  also  has  the  function  of  holding-  food  material 
and  plant  water  until  such  time  as  it  will  be  needed  by  the  plant. 
The  nodes,  which  we  have  said  might  commonly  be  called 
joints,  but  which  are  no  more  joints  than  the  partition  between 
two  rooms  is  a  joint  between  the  two  rooms,  also  aid  the  pith  m 
assisting  the  cylinder  of  woody  material  in   maintaining  its  rigid 


Plate  6— Section  of  a  Corn  Stalk 

The  node  and  the  pith   holdingf  numerous  fibro-vascular  bundles   above  it 
are  shown. — Iowa  State  College. 


26 


CORN 


form.  Through  the  pith  and  up  through  the  woody  wall  of  the 
stalk  we  have  extending  what  may  be  called  tubes,  but  better 
called  "fibro-vascular  bundles."  These  l)undles  give  a  great  deal 
of  support  to  the  plant  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  are  carrying- 
plant  food  from  the  roots  to  the  green  parts  of  the  plant  or  to 
some  other  part  where  it  is  needed. 

Outside  of  the  structure  of  the  stalk  itself,  which  has  been 
mentioned,  is  the  epidermis  which  corresponds  to  that  similar 
covering  which  is  developed  in  all  forms  of  higher  plants.  This 
epidermis  acts  mainl}-  as  a  protective  covering  guarding  the  parts 


Plate  ^ — Ear  and  Leaves 

Lower  leaf  shows  where,  in  the  groove  of  the  stalk  and  under  the  leaf 
sheath,  the  lower  ear  was  attached.  The  rain  g-uard  on  each  leaf  can  be 
seen.     The  leaf  sheath  of  lower  leaf  extends  almost  to   node  above. — Iowa 

State  College. 


CORN  •  27 

of  the  stalk  which  are  tender  and  need  a  great  deal  of  care  if  the}' 
are  to  perform  their  functions  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  leaves  of  the  corn  plant  are  arranged,  as  has  been  said, 
alternately  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  plant ;  that  is,  a  leaf 
is  found  first  on  one  side,  then  up  at  the  next  node  on  the  other 
side  is  the  next  leaf,  and  so  on  up  the  plant.  Each  node  of  the 
plant  bears  a  leaf.  From  the  node  where  the  leaf  is  attached,  up 
the  stalk  for  eight  inches,  more  or  less,  extends  what  we  call  the 
leaf  sheath,  wrapped  tightly  about  the  stalk  itself.  This  leaf 
sheath  acts  in  conjunction  with  the  woody  wall  to  make  a  hollow 
cylinder  of  hard  material  for  support.  Underneath  the  leaf  sheatli 
may  be  found  the  bud  which  corresponds  to  the  l:)ranch  which 
originally  came  from  the  plant;  that  is,  from  the  plant  as  it  ex- 
isted hundreds  of  years  ago.  The  leaf  sheath  turns  off  into  the 
leaf  blade  itself.  At  the  point  where  the  leaf  separates  from  the 
stalk  proper,  and  bends  into  the  air  in  graceful  form,  is  an  exten- 
sion which  wraps  itself  tightly  around  the  stalk  and  known  as  the 
rain-guard.  This  rain-guard  is  a  fringed  piece  of  material  which, 
as  its  name  suggests,  has  the  function  primarily'  of  keeping  moist- 
ure from  going  down  between  the  leaf  sheath  and  the  stalk  itself. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  corn  this  use  is  not  prominent,  but  in  small 
grains,  where  it  is  necessary  for  the  leaves  to  swing  by  their  leaf 
sheath  to  a  certain  extent,  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  no  dirt  be- 
tween the  leaf  sheath  and  'the  stalk.  In  corn,  however,  the  leaves 
do  not  depend  upon  this  axle  motion  for  their  protection  against 
the  winds.  The  principal  protection  which  the  corn  leaf  shows  is 
that  of  the  uneven  edges  of  the  leaf.  The  corn  leaf  as  it  begins  to 
grow  does  so  more  rapidly  at  the  edge  of  the  leaf  than  it  does 
at  the  central  'part.  As  a  result  there  is  the  wavy  appearance 
which  is  so  common  to  every  one  familiar  with  corn.  As  the 
wind  blows  the  leaf  from  side  to  side  the  wavy  edges  permit  the 
leaf  on  one  side  to  be  stretched  and  the  other  side -to  be  folded. 
This  means  that  there  is  no  tearing  of  the  leaves  and  that  the  plant 
is  not  unnecessarily  strained.  The  central  part  of  the  leaf  has  a 
collection  of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles,  and  by  means  of  them  is 
able  to  maintain  a  graceful  support  of  the  leaf  itself. 

As  one  goes  further  up  the  plant  it  is  noticed  that  the  ear 
comes  from  under  a  leaf  sheath.  In  fact,  in  ascertaining  whether 
a  stalk  is  a  barren  stalk  or  not  the  leaf  sheath  is  usuall}'  felt.     This 


28 


CORN 


of  course  is  in  accordance  with  the  development  of  the  plant,  which 
has  already  been  mentioned.  The  ear  is  borne  on  a  shank  com- 
posed of  nodes  and  internodes  just  as  the  stalk  itself  is  composed. 
Leaves  arise  at  each  node,  but  with  the  ear  we  call  those  leaves' 
the  husks.  In  fact,  it  is  supposed  that,  as  the  present  plant  was 
developing-  from  the  original  plant  already  cited,  the  branch  merely 
contracted  in  size,  all  the  leaves  remaining ;  and  in  doing  so,  they 
covered  completely  the  ear  of  corn.  So  we  have  surrounding  the 
ear  and  its  kernels  a  protective  covering  of  leaves  differing  in 
their  structure  from  the  ordinary  leaf  because  of  the  functions 
they  have  been  forced  to  perform. 

'erminating  the  stalk  is  the  tassel.  From  this  tassel  comes 
the  pollen  grains  which  make  it  possible  for  kernels  of  corn  to 
develop.  Each  one  of  these  tassels  is  composed  of  numerous 
flowers  which  bear  only  the  male  organs.  These  male  organs  are 
composed  of  a  slender  support  on  which  rest  hollow  sacks.  In 
this  hollow  section  is  manufactured  the  pollen  so  essential  in  the 
production  of  corn.  It  is  interesting  tO'  note  at  this  place  that  these 
hollow  sacks,  or  anthers,  open  at  the  side,  after  they  have  drooped 


Plate  8— a  SingivE;  Flower 


CORN 


29 


over,  in  order  that  the  plant  may  avoid  self-fertilization.  For  corn 
requires  cross-fertilization  for  perfect  results.  These  sacks  also,  if 
they  were  end  opening,  would  lose  their  pollen  much  before  such 
would  be  desired.  Being  side  opening,  they  permit  the  wind  to 
distribute  the  pollen  at  its  will.  These  pollen  sacks  on  their  slen- 
der supports  extend  out  of  small  leaf-like  pockets,  just  as  is  true 
of  many  grasses ;  but  on  the  tassel  we  have  very  seldom  developed 
any  organs  which  may  be  classed  as  female  organs.  That  is,  the 
whole  function  of  the  tassel  is  the  production  of  pollen  for  the 
fertilization  of  flowers  borne  elsewhere.  Those  flowers  appear  on 
plants  throughout  the  field  at  the  place  where  later  we  find  the 


PivATE  9 — Ear  and  Tassei.  in  Bi,oom 

Each  kernel  is  represented  by  a  silk.      Each  pollen  sack  contains  many  pol- 
len grains. — Iowa  State  College. 


30  CORN 

_ear  of  corn  itself.  The  young  ear  of  corn  before  any  pollen  has 
reached  it  is  no'tliing  but  the  cob,  as  we  ordinarily  know  it,  covered 
with  a  great  many  flowers  which  do  not  have  any  male  parts.  The 
tassel  in  most  cases  develops  before  the  silks  of  the  ear.  The  silks 
of  the  ear  as  they  develop  correspond  to,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  pistils 
of  the  plant.  Each  would-be  kernel  sends  forth  a  silk  wliich 
pushes  itself  from  out  the  husk  and  is  ready  for  pollenation  by 
the  pollen  from  some  other  stalk. 


The  ear  really  develops  in  three  sections.  That  is,  the  kernels 
form  the  lower  part  of  the  ear  send  out  silks  first ;  the  kernels 
from  the  central  part  of  the  ear  send  out  silks  next ;  and  the  lip 
last.  Each  silk  that  comes  out  requires  one  pollen  grain  in  order 
that  the  kernel  from  which  it  came  ma)^  be  able  to  develop,  but 
there  is  little  difficulty  in  securing  pollen  enough  to  accomplish 
this  work.  It  has  been  estimated  that  each  anther,  or  pollen  sack, 
produces  about  2,700  pollen  grains.  A  single  tassel  contains  7,500 
pollen  sacks,  making  a  total  of  30,250,000  pollen  grains  per  plant 
in  the  cornfield.  It  is  estimated  from  this  that  if  every  grain  of 
pollen  were  to  reach  a  silk  there  would  be  30,250  grains  for  eacu 
ovary  if  each  stalk  produced  but  one  ear  as  is  ordinarily  the  case. 
As  soon  as  the  pollen  grain  reaches  the  silk,  the  egg  on  the  cob  is 
fertilized  and  the  kernel  begins  its  development.  From  them  we 
have  developed  all  the  parts  which  are  noticed  in  the  natural 
kernel.  The  plant  food  has  been  taken  from  the  soil,  and  also 
from  the  air  and  turned  into  forms  which  can  be  used  or  stored 
in  the  kernel. 

At  this  point  it  is  interesting  to  notice  just  how  it  is  that  the 
plant  gets  this  food  material  which  is  so  necessary  for  the  devel- 
opment of  itself'  and  the  reproduction  of  its  kind.  Nothing  has 
been  said  so  far  concerning  the  fact  that  the  plant  is  green  in 
color.  It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  root  hairs  and  the  rootlets 
are  able  to  absorb  from  the  soil  certain  plant  foods  which  are  nec- 
essary for  the  growth  of  the  plant,  but  at  the  same  time  that  this 
action  is  going  on,  the  leaves  are  appropriating  the  water  which 
the  roots  are  sending  to  them  and  are  taking  in  through  pores  in 
their  epidermis  carbon  dioxide  gas  from  the  air.  This  water  and 
carbon  dioxide  gas  are  united  in  the  leaves  to  form  starch.  This 
is  done  by  means  of  the  green  coloring  matter  in  the  leaves  and 
the  action^f  sunlight  upon  that  green  matter.    The  coloring  matter 


CORN 


31 


itself  is  called  chlorophyl.  The  process  is  called  photosynthesis. 
This  plant  food  then,  which  has  been  secured  from  the  soil  and 
from  the  air,  is  used  by  the  plant  in  the  development  of  the 
kernels.  It  is,  of  course,  carried  to  the  kernels  in  liquid  form.  All 
food  materials  are  transported  in  that  way  in  all  plants. 

The  embryo  is  first  formed  and  then  the  remainder  of  the 
kernel.  In  this  process  we  have  brought  to  the  kernel  a  great 
deal  of  food  material.  As  the  plant  matures  and  the  grains  get 
harder,  this  food  material  is  placed  in  definite  parts  of  the  grain 
itself  and  we  have  arranged  those  parts  as  has  already  been  indi- 
cated in  Plate    11. 

^\'ith  the  completion  of  this  work  wc  ha\'e  the  completion  of 
the  growth  of  the  corn  plant  and  it  dries  at  the  same  time  that  the 
ear  is  maturino-. 


Plate  10— Faulty  Pollination 

For  some  reason  many  would  be  kernels  were  never  pollenated  and  irreg-u- 
larly  formed  kernels  are  the  result. — Iowa  State  College. 


32  CORN 

LABORATORY   EXERCISE. 

Part  I. 

Secure  some  well  formed  kernels  of  corn  and  moisten  them' 
well  in  warm  water.  After  the  seed  has  swelled  quite  a  little, 
remove  it  from  the  water  and  by  the  use  of  a  penknife  separate 
the  various  parts  of  the  kernel.  The  three  parts  which  will  be 
most  easily  separated  will  be  the  hull,  the  endosperm,  and  the 
embryo.  At  the  same  time  that  this  is  being-  done  the  other  parts 
given  in  Plate   11  may  be  noted. 


Part  II. 

Take  a  number  of  well  formed  kernels,  put  them  between 
moist  cloths  which  are  to  be  kept  moist,  or  put  them  in  an  ordi- 
nary seed  corn  germination  box,  and  allow  them  to  germinate. 
Note  daily  the  following  results :  Radicle  breaking  through  the 
seed  coat;  beg'inning  of  the  plumule  formation  into  leaves;  adven- 
titious roots  starting  underneath  the  seed  coat  just  above  the 
radicle ;  root  hairs  on  all  roots ;  green  coloring  matter  beginning 
to  show  in  the  leaves. 

Note. — It  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  corn  germinate  in  the 
light  if  the  green  coloring  matter  shows. 


Part  III. 

Secure  a  well  developed  stalk  and  look  for  the  following- 
items  :  nodes,  rain-guards,  leaf  blade,  woody  wall  of  the  stalk,  pith, 
fibro-vascular  bundles.  At  the  same  time  that  these  points  are 
being  noted  recall  their  use  as  it  has  already  been  stated. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  CORN. 

Nothwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  plant  is  of  so  much  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  good  corn,  all  writers  so  far  have 
taken  into  consideration  mainly  the  ear  and  the  kernel  in  classi- 
fying corn  into  various  types  and  varieties.     This  is  because  the 


CORN  33 

ear  is  available  at  all  times,  while  the  plant  is  not.  .  And  so  what- 
ever is  mentioned  by  any  one  in  regard  to  the  classification  of 
corn  will  be  based  upon  the  ear  itself. 

Corn  as  a  separate  species  is  termed  Zca  mays.  Dr.  E.  L. 
Sturtevant,  in  his  bulletins  on  "Varieties  of  Corn,"  published  by 
the  Office  of  the  Experiment  Stations,  in  1899,  says :  "The  species 
Zea  mays  includes  exceedingly  divergent  forms.  The  height  of  the 
plant  in  varieties  and  localities  has  been  reported  from  eighteen 
inches  for  the  Golden  Tom  Thumb  pop  to  thirty  feet  or  more  for 
varieties  in  the  West  Indies,  and  single  stalks  in  Tennessee  at 
22yi^  feet.  I  have  seen  ears  one  inch  long  in  the  pop  class  and 
sixteen  inches  long  in  the  dent  class.  The  rows  in  varieties  may 
vary  from  eight  to  twenty-four  or  more,  and  in  individual  ears 
are  reported  from  four  to  forty-eight.  A  hundred  kernels  of  Mini- 
ature pop  weighed  46  grains;  of  Cuzco  Soft,  1,531  grains.  In 
some  varieties  the  ears  are  long  and  slender;  in  others,  short  and 
thick ;  in  the  Bearfoot  pop,  flat.  Some  varieties  have  flat  kernels ; 
other  varieties  have  spheroidal  kernals ;  yet  others,  conical  kernels. 
The  summits  of  the  kernels  may  be  flat,  rounded  or  pointed,  or 
indented." 

So'  Dr.  Sturtevant  continues  to  mention  differences  in  the  ear 
and  difiPerences  in  the  kernel,  in  structure  and  in  form,  and  also 
in  prolificacy,  or  the  ability  of  the  corn  to  produce  a  great  deal  of 
other  corn.  In  noting  these  differences  and  in  attempting  to 
classify  all  corn  that  we  know  at  the  present  time  into  types.  Dr. 
Sturtevant  outlines  the  following  types  of  corn  and  gives  their 
characteristics.  These  types  are  made  primarily  on  the  arrange- 
ment and  character  of  the  endosperm,  although  resulting  therefrom 
are  noted  marked  variations  in  the  shape  of  the  grain.  If  a  Dent 
Mays  is  split  through  its  two  longest  diameters,  the  endosperm 
will  appear  to  consist  of  two  parts.  (See  Plate  2.)  One  will  be 
white  and  starchy,  the  other  will  be  glossy  or  horny.  On  charac- 
ters such  as  these,  Dr.  Sturtevant  makes  his  separation. 

Types  of  Corn. 

1.  Pod  Corns    (Zea  tunicata). 

2.  Pop  Corns  (Zea  everta). 

3.  Flint  Corns   (Zea  indurata). 


34  CORN 

4.  Dent  Corns   (Zea  indentata). 

5.  Soft  Corns  (Zea  amylacea). 

6.  Sweet  Corns  (Zea  saccharata). 

7.  Starchy-sweet  Corns    (Zea  amyleasaccharata). 

There  are  given  three  types  of  kernels  under  each  of  the  above 
types:  (A)  The  kernel  broader  than  deep,  (B)  the  kernel  as  deep 
as  broad,  (C)  kernel  deeper  than  broad.  The  characters  given  for 
each  type  seem  independent  of  climate  or  cultural  conditions. 

1.  Pod  Corns.  In  this  group  each  kernel  is  enclosed  in  a 
pod  or  husks,  and  the  ear  thus  formed  is  enclosed  in  husks.  Be- 
sides being-  called  Pod  Corn  it  is  often  named  Egyptian  Corn, 
Primitive  Corn,  Husk  Corn,  and  Forage  Corn.  The  plant  itself 
is  very  leafy  and  suckers  abundantly,  in  this  wa}-  suggesting  the 
primitive  type  from  Avhich  it  must  have  come.  Occasionally  now 
there  is  seen  in  cultivated  fields  of  corn  a  reversion  to  this  old  and 
primitive  form. 

.  "The  pod  corn  specimens  that  we  have  studied  are  A'cry  re- 
sistant to  weevil  infection.  Once  our  whole  collection  of  varieties 
of  corn  was  destroyed  except  the  pod  corn.  The  kernels  of  all  the 
groups  that  we  have  found  on  podded  ears  are  of  a  very  flinty 
character,  and  are  in  the  podded  specimens  slightly  smaller  than 
in  their  unpodded  forms.  Humboldt  says  of  maize  in  AiT^^erica, 
that  'when  left  to  nature  the  birds  prevent  their  reproduction  by 
destroying  the  seeds.'  Podded  corn  is  less  conspicuous  than  the 
naked  kernels  of  cultivated  varieties,  and  is  looser  on  the  cob,  yet 
firml3-  attached.  This  favors  protection  from  and  distribution  by 
birds.  As  insect  and  bird  depredation  furnish  the  strongest  bar- 
rier to  the  growing  of  wild  forms  of  maize,  these  protective  char- 
acters assume  an  importance  in  the  argument  in  favor  of  pod  corn 
being  an  aboriginal  form,  and  justify  Darwin's  conclusion  previ- 
ously cjuoted.  The  property  of  floating  upon  water,  which  the 
podded  kernels  possess  in  strong  degree,  would  also  facilitate  dis- 
tribution in  a  state  of  nature,  as  also  the  moisture  retained  within 
the  pod." 

2.  Pop  Corns.  These  corns  are  characterized  by  the  exces- 
sive proportion  of  the  corneous  or  horny  endosperm  and  the  small 
size  of  the  kernels  and  ear.  This  horny  texture  gives  the  ability 
of  these  corns  to  pop.     Popping  is  the  complete  turning  inside  out 


.    CORN  35 

of  the  kernel  through  the  explosion  of  the  contained  moisture  on 
the  application  of  heat.  A  little  starch  present  in  the  kernel  will 
not  prevent  proper  popping,  but  very  much  or  an  excess  allows 
the  kernel  merely  to  split  when  heat  is  applied.  The  true  pop 
corn  is  tender  in  its  eating.  There  is  only  one  type  of  corn  with 
which  one  would  confuse  the  pop  corn,  and  that  is  the  flint.  Flint 
corn,  however,  has  a  larger  kernel  and  has  not  the  ability  to_  pop. 

Of  the  varieties  of  pop  corn  there  are  really  two  classes:  (1) 
the  rice  and  (2)  the  pearl.  The  former  is  pointed  and  sharp  on 
the  outside,  the  latter,  is  smooth  and  round.  Both  are  good  pop 
corns. 

The  plants  vary  in  size  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet. 
The  ears  are  of  various  lengths.  The'  pop  corns  seem  to  be  more 
subject  to  freak  growths  than  any  other  type,  and  are  capable,  as 
a  rule,  of  producing  more  ears  to  the  stalk  than  any  other  type. 

3.  The  Flint  Corns.  These  corns  are  characterized  by  the 
flinty  endosperm  surrounding  a  starchy  portion  of"  much  bulk. 
The  hard,  flinty  portion  varies  in  thickness,  but  is  always  so  thick 
that  when  the  kernel  dries  there  is  no  dent.  The  width  of  the 
kernel  is  usually  greater  than  the  length.  The  ear  is  long  and 
small  in  circumference  ;  the  plant  is  small,  suckers  freely  and  is 
able  to  mature  good  corn  in  from  90  to  140  days,  the  more  fre- 
quent period  being  about  100  days.  This  makes  it  an  excellent 
variety  for  some  of  the  northern  states,  like  the  Dakotas,  Minne- 
sota and  AVisconsin,  New  York  and  the  New  England  states, 
where  it  is  grown  with  a  great  deal  of  profit  and  in  abundance. 

4,  The  Dent  Corns.  This  is  the  type  of  corn  which  is  grown 
so  commonly.  It  is  recognized  by  the  corneous  endosperm,  or  the 
flinty  portion,  at  the  sides  of  the  kernel.  The  flinty  portion  is 
lacking"  at  the  tops  of  the  kernels  and  as  a  result  there  always 
occurs  the  dent  from  which  the  type  is  named.  When  such  corn 
is  taken  north  from  the  section  in  which  it  is  native,  more  of  that 
horny  matter  which  characterizes  the  flint  corn  is  developed,  and 
as  a  result  the  dent  decreases ;  and  only  with  a  great  deal  of  care- 
ful selection  will  it  remain  a  well  bred  dent  corn.  The  plant  is 
characterized  by  a  strong  and  vigorous  growth,  broad  leaves,  few 
suckers,  and  usually  only  one  ear  to  the  stalk.  The  kernels  in 
their    physical    characteristics    are    wedge-shaped,    usually    longer 


36  CORN 

than  they  are  wide.  In  fact,  the  type  as  a  type  is  noted  for  the 
depth  of  the  kernels,  and  the  large  germs.  The  time  required  for 
maturity  will  vary  from  110  to  150  days,  but  a  period  of  130  days 
is  usually  considered  the  extreme  limit. 

It  is  on  this  corn  that  the  trades  of  the  continents  with  regard 
to  corn  are  established.  If  all  the  corns  were  noted  as  they  affect 
commerce  and  local  trade,  there  would  be  but  two  to  be  consid- 
ered :  Flint  and  Dent.  And  of  these  two  the  dent  type  by  an  over- 
whelming majority  would  have  first  place. 

At  this  place  it  might  be  well  to  insert  the  qualities  that  go 
to  make  a  good  dent  ear  of  corn,  such  an  ear  as  is  shown  on  the 
first  pages  of  this  paper.  A  good  dent  ear  of  corn  will  be  in  gen- 
eral shape  cylindrical  or  nearly  so,  with  well  shaped'  kernels  run- 
ning uniformly  from  the  butt  to  the  tip  in  straight  rows.  The 
kernels  will  be  wedge  shaped,  not  peg  shaped;  and  their  length 
will  be  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  times  the  width.  The  germs 
will  be  large.  The  tips  and  the  butts  of  the  ears  will  be  well  cov- 
ered, that  is,  regularly  covered  with  straight  rows  of  deep  kernels. 
The  shank  will  be  just  large  enough  to  accomplish  its  jDurpose, 
which  is  to  support  the  ear  on  the  stalk  until  husking  time.  The 
size  of  ear  will  be  no  larger  than  will  mature  in  the  district  where 
the  ear  is  being  grown.  Its  proportion  will  be  approximately  as 
follows :  the  circumference  three-quarters  of  the  length. 

5.  The  Soft  Corns.  This  type  of  corn  has  no  flinty  endo- 
sperm whatsoever.  As  a  result  of  uniformity  of  drying  there  is 
no  dent  in  the  kernel.  A  great  many  of  the  mummy  corns  that 
have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of  South  America  would 
come  under  this  class.  However,  that  such  corns  are  found  only 
in  southern  countries  is  not  true,  for  some  specimens  have  been 
secured  from  Manitoba. 

6.  Sweet  Corns.  This  is-  a  well  defined  group  of  corns  which 
are  very  well  known  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States.  They 
are  characterized  by  the  translucent,  horny  appearance  of  the  ker- 
nels and  their  more  or  less  crinkled,  wrinkled,  or  shriveled  condi- 
tion. This  type  seems  to  be  less  subject  to  freak  growths  than 
many  of  the  others.  "It  is  extensively  grown  for  canning  pur- 
poses, and  is  grown  in  Maine  as  a  field  crop  for  this  purpose  in 


CORN  37 

localities  too  far  north  for  the  ripening-  of  seed.  A  number  of  the 
early  varieties  ripen  their  crop  as  far  north  as  Ottawa,  Canada. 
On  account  of  the  property  of  the  seed  ripening  on  the  cob  when 
picked  at  an  early  stage  of  edible  maturity  it  is  difficult  to  say  how 
far  northward  it  might  not  be  grown  in  the  care  of  intelligent 
growers.  Sweet  corn  seems  to  be  but  little  grown  in  our  Southern 
states,  and  apparently  improves  in  quality  as  it  moves  northward. 
The  principal  packing  districts  in  1891  were  in  Maine,  New'  York, 
and  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  south  as  Virginia,  although  the  busi- 
ness is  assuming  importance  in  the  central  west."  - 

7.  The  Starchy  Sweet  Corns.  The  appearance  of  the  kernel 
of  this  type  is  that  of  the  sw^eet  corn,  but  the  structure  shows  only 
the  top  to  be  like  the  sweet  type.  The  lower  half  of  the  kernel 
is  like  to  soft  corns.  There  is  little  known  about  these  corns  and 
they  have  not  been  produced  to  any  commercial  extent. 

Laboratory  Exercise. 

AA^rite  to  some  reliable  seed  house  and  ask  them  if  they  could 
secure  an  ear  of  each  of  the  various  types  of  corn  for  you.  After 
you  have  been  able  to  get  the  corns,  place  the  ears  side  by  side 
and  note  the  following  points :  size  of  ear ;  shape  of  ear ;  kerne] 
coating;  shape  of  kernel.  Cut  the  kernel  through  in  two  direc- 
tions and  note  the  composition,  looking  for  the  starchy  part,  the 
horny  portion,  and  the  germ. 

COMMON  VARIETIES  OF  DENT  CORN. 

In  each  type  there  are  varieties,  but  the  varieties  that  are  of 
interest  to  most  of  the  farmers  of  the  country  are  those  of  the 
dent  type.  Varieties  are  distinguished  by  difference  of  the  ear. 
Very  little  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  stalk,  although  experi- 
mentalists are  emphasizing  that  phase  of  the  question  more  today 
than  they  have  for  several  years.  Sturtevant  classifies  about  325 
varieties  of  dent  corn,  and  to  go  into^  detail  as  to  a  very  great  many 
of  them  would  be  a  tiresome  task  for  any  one,  but  the  principle 
upon  which  they  are  classified  becomes  very  interesting.  Some  of 
the  points  which  are  noted  in  making  a  distinction  between  one 
variety  and  another  are : 


38  '  CORN 

1.  Shape  of  the  Ear,  This  may  vary  from  the  extreme  taper 
to  the  extreme  cyhndrical,  the  one  which  tapers  just  shghtly  being' 
the  one  which  is  considered  the  best. 

2.  Length  of  Ear.  This  will  vary  for  the  varieties,  much  de- 
pending- upon  the  locality  in  which  the  corn  is  grown. 

3.  Circumference  of  Ear.  Usually  is  about  three-quarters  of 
the  length,  but  this  will  vary  a  little  one  way  or  the  other  with 
the  variety. 

4.  Condition  of  the  Kernels.  Some  varieties  have  kernels  on 
the  cob  a  little  looser  than  other  varieties. 

5.  Color  of  Kernels.  The  common  varieties  are  different 
shades  of  yellow  and  white. 

6.  Indentation  of  Kernels.  Some  varieties  have  been  bred 
for  a  deeper  dent  than  others.  As  the  corn  is  moved  to  the  north 
the  dent  is  reduced. 

7.  Shape  of  Kernels.  Some  kernels  are  wedge  shaped,  others 
are  square  shouldered.  Each  variety  kernel  has  some  pretty  clearly 
defined  characters.  '  , 

8..     Length    of    Kernels.     Usually   given   as    deep,   medium  *or 

shallow. 

9.  Number  of  Rows.    This  will  vary  from  eight  to  twenty-six. 

10.  Space  Between  Rows.  It  is  not  desirable  to  have  much 
space  between  the  rows,  but  some  varieties  are  allowed  more  than 
others.  The  shape  and  the  depth  of  the  kernel  will  determine  this 
to  a  great  extent. 

11.  Arrangement  of  the  Rows.  Most  varieties  are  paired,  but 
a  few^  varieties  have  each  row  distinct  in  itself. 

12.  Filling  of  Butts.  Some  varieties  permit  a  flatter  Ijutt 
than  will  other  variety  types.  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  is  well  rounded. 
Boone  County  White  is  flat. 

13.  Filling  of  Tips.  The  tips  should  be  well  filled  but  not  at 
the  expense  of  some  other  part. 

14.  Shank.  The  cup  shaped  cavity  where  the  shank  was  at- 
tached should  be  as  small  as  the  size  of  the  ear  will  allow. 


CORN  39 

15.  Size  of  Cob.  The  shelling  percentage  of  a  variety  will 
depend  upon  this  factor  to  a  great  extent. 

16.  Color  of  Cob.  Alost  yellow  varieties  have  red  cobs. 
Most  white  varieties  have  white  cobs.  The  red  cobs  vary  in  shade 
of  red. 

17.  Per  Cent,  of  Shelled  Corn.  The  per  cent,  of  shelled  corn 
means  the  per  cent,  of  the  ear  that  is  actual  corn.  Some  variety 
standards  are  often  given  as  high  as  88  per  cent.,  but  this  figure 
is  really  higher  than  the  average  good  ears  Avill  really  shell. 

AVhen  one  variety  is  being  compared  with  another  variety  it 
is  well  to  hold  in  mind  the  fact  that  unless  the  corn  is  normal, 
well  matured  and  well  dried  the  comparison  will  not  be  just.  For 
example,  an  immature  ear  would  probably  show  a  much  different 
dent  than  one  that  was  not  so  immature.  So,  to  make  the  com- 
parison fair,  it  is  necessary  to  secure  well  treated  ears  and  then 
to  have  a  great  many  of  such  ears  of  each  variety,  for  if  only  a 
few  ears  are  examined  the  differences  noted  may  be  those  affect- 
ing only  the  ears  at  hand  and  not  the  variety  as  a  whole. 


A  FEW  STANDARD   VARIETIES. 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent.  This  variety  has  been  grown  in  almost 
every  state  in  the  Union.  In  1846  Mr.  Robert  Reid  moved  from 
Brown  County,  Ohio,  to  Tazewell  County,  Illinois.  He  took  with 
him  the  corn  then  known  as  the  Gordon  Hopkins  corn.  He  planted 
this  corn  on  his  farm  near  Delavan,  Ills.,  but  it  did  not  prove  the 
success  he  had  hoped  for  (as  it  was  too  long  in  maturing).  Be- 
cause of  a  poor  stand  from  his  seed,  the  next  season  he  replanted 
the  field  with  the  Little  Yellow  corn.  As  a  result  his  seed  for  the 
following  season  was  mixed,  but  from  that  time  on  he  selected 
carefully,  and  others  jiave  done  likewise  with  the  same  strain  of 
corn.  As  a  result  we  have  a  recognized  variety  in  this  corn 
wherever  it  is  grown.  Among  the  contemporary  breeders  is  Mr. 
D.  L.  Pascal,  of  DeWitt,  Iowa,  who  raised  the  ear  shown  in  Fig.  1 
of  this  paper. 

Learning  is  one  of  the  old  varieties,  but  the  type  of  the  ear 
has  been  changed  to  such  an  extent  that  at  the  present  time  there 
are  few  men  who  grow  the  real   Leaming.     It  was  developed  by 


40  CORN 

J.  S.  Learning  while  he  was  living-  at  AVilmington,  Ohio.  ]Mr. 
Learning-  took  a  great  deal  of  care  in  the  selection  of  his  seed  and 
after  him  his  son  carried  on  the  w^ork.  Man}^  of  the  varieties  that 
are  common  today  trace  back  to  the  Learning  blood,  but  few  hold 
to  that  taper  which  characterized  the  first  strains.  Leaming  is  a 
good  yielder,  being  a  little  earlier  than  the  Boone  County  White, 
and  later  than  Silver  Mine,  and  Reid's  Yellow  Dent..  This  makes 
it  especially  adapted  to  the  central  part  of  the  corn  belt. 

Legal  Tender  was  started  towards  that  type  wdiich  it  now 
holds  about  1876,  by  Nims  Brothers,  of  Emerson,  Iowa.  They 
discovered  two  distinct  types  in  their  seed  corn,  one  a  short,  thick 
ear,  and  the  other  a  long,  slim  ear.  By  crossing  these  two  types 
and  following  that  wath  careful  selection  they  originated  the  Legal 
Tender  variety.  This  variety  is  restricted  more  or  less  to  the  dis- 
trict from  which  it  came.  It  has  never  been  widely  distributed, 
and  probably,  with  its  present  type,  never  will  be. 

Boone  County  White  is  one  of  the  most  popular  corns  of  the 
country.  This  variety  was  originated  by  Mr.  James  Riley,  of 
Boone  County,  Indiana.  It  was  made  by  selection  from  a  large, 
coarse  corn  of  the  time,  known  as  A'Vhite  Mastodon.  The  type 
was  established  entirely  by  selection,  and,  soon  after  that,  various 
breeders  all  over  the  central  and  southern  part  of  the  corn  belt 
began  to  raise  it. 

Silver  Mine  was  originated  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Beagley,  of  ,Ford 
County,  Illinois.  The  type  was  brought  to  a  standard  by  several 
years  of  very  close  breeding.  After  that  the  Iowa  Seed  Company 
purchased  the  stock  of  Mr.  Beagley  and  named  the  corn  Iowa 
Silver  Mine.  It  is  characterized  by  the  broad,  deep  kernel  with  a 
very  rough  dent.  Often  confused  with  this  is  the  Silver  King 
corn,  which  is  entirely  different,  being-  much  smaller  and  much 
earlier  maturing. 

Minnesota  No.  13  illustrates  what  may  be  done  by  the  effort 
of  an  experiment  station.  This  variety  was  brought  out  by  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station  from  some  corn  which  they  found 
in  their  locality.  It  has  become  very  popular  in, those  states 
where  it  is  adapted,  namely,  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  It  is 
qharacterized  by  a  deep  kernel  for  the  period  of  maturity  which  is 
required.  * 


CORN 


41 


Pirate  11— Silver  Mii<:E.—/owa  State  Colles:e 


42  CORN 

Laboratory  Exercise. 

Secure  three  or  four  varieties  of  corn  from  the  most  con\e- 
nient  place  and  note  carefully  the  different  points  as  given  in  the 
outline  above. 

Variety  Tests. 

There  always  are,  in  the  states  where  experiments  have  been 
in  operation  very  long,  variety  tests  being  conducted.  TheSe  tests, 
however,  are  the  work  of  men  who  spend  their  entire  time  at 
such  business  and  should  not  be  attempted  by  the  farmer.  Corn 
variety  tests  are  necessary  in  every  community,  for  the  results  of 
one  place  wall  not  apply  to  another.  So-  it  is  much  better  for  the 
farmer  who  has  a  corn  of  medium  yield  to  select  from  that  corn 
rather  than  to  send  to  some  distant  place  for  seed  on  the  grounds 
that  reports  from  that  place  on  the  corn  were  large.  Corn  moved 
any  distance,  especially  if  soil  and  climate  are  different,  will  not 
do  as  well  as  corn  raised  in  the  immediate  localitv. 


CORN 


43 


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CORN  45 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students— These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendenth'.  Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  3'our  examina- 
tion. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  9  in.  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.     Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


Questions  on  Lesson  I 

1.  What  place  does  America  hold  among  the  nations  of  the 
world  in  the  production  of  corn?     Give  approximate  figures. 

2.  Where  does  the  United  States  stand  as  compared  with  the 
other  countries  of  this  continent?     Give  figures. 

3.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  the  United  States,  bushels 
per  acre? 

4.  AA'hat  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  your  state?  In 
your  county? 

5.  Has  the  average  yield  of  corn  per  acre  increased  or  de- 
creased in  your  state?     How  do  you  explain  this? 

6.  In  the  United  States  what  can  you  say  as  to  the  place  of 
corn  among  the  other  cereals? 

7.  Where  did  corn  come  from?     Discuss. 

8.  W^here  do  we  learn  first  of  corn  being  produced  in  the 
United  States  or  in  the  country  now  occupied  by  the  United 
States? 

9.  Of  what  benefit  were  the  Indians  to  the  white  men  as  they 
began  to  grow,  and  cultivate  corn? 


46  CORN 

10.  How    long    have    European    countries    been    cultivating 
corn? 

11.  From  what  plant  do  we  think  corn  came? 

12.  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that  the  tassel  is  at  the  top 
.and  ear  at  the  side  of  the  stalk? 

13.  What  features,  as  corn   is  noted  in  the  field,  lead  us  to 
believe,  as  we  do  today,  about  the  origin  of  the  corn  plant? 

14.  What  do  you  understand  by  "a  grass"? 

15.  Tell   whether   the    following   are   grasses   or   not:    wheat, 
oats,  corn,  clover,  alfalfa,  buckwheat,  timothy,  dandelion. 

16.  Draw  a  diagram  of  the  kernel  of  corn,  naming  the  parts. 

17.  Describe  the  germination  of  the  kernel  of  corn. 

18.  How  do  the  roots  start  from  the  kernel,  and  what  names 
are  given  the  various  kinds  of  roots? 

19.  Explain  how  the  stalk  is  made  up. 

20.  Give  five  ways  the  plant  has  of  protecting  itself  against 
the  wind. 

21.  Of  what  uses  is  the  pith?     The  fibro-vascular  bundles? 

22.  What  sort  of  a  root  system  do  we  want,  and  why? 

23.  How  does  the  plant  feed? 

24.  AVhat  is  chlorophyl,  and  how  'is  it  used? 

25.  Describe  the  tassel  and  the  developing  ear. 

26.  How  is  the  pollen  of  the  corn  plant  distributed? 

27.  To  whom   do  we  refer  for  the   classification   of  varieties 
and  types? 

28.  What  is  a  type?     A  variety? 


CORN  47 

29.  Name  the  types  of  corn. 

30.  Distinguish  between  each. 

31.  What  qualities   would  you   think    ought   to   be   possessed 
by  a  good  feeding-  corn? 

32.  What  corns  are  of  commeicial   importance? 

33.  What  are  some  of  our  most  common  varieties?     Name 
eight, 

34.  How   Avould    you    distinguish   Reid's    Yellow    Dent    from 
Learning? 

35.  Give  the  history  of  Reid's  Yellow  Dent. 

36.  Give  the  history  of  Boone  County  White. 

37.  From  what  three  sources  do  our  varieties  come? 

38.  If  varieties  are  to  be  compared,  what  is  essential? 

39.  What  do  you  understand  by  "variet}^  tests"? 

40.  When  will  a  high  yielding  corn  be  of  little  or  no  use  to 
the  farmer? 


Write  This  at  the  End  of  Your  Examination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  entirely 
by  me. 

Signed 

Address 


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Bs  G>rrespondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


11 


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CORN— PART    TWO 


J  wi 


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THE 


Correspondence    College 

of  Agriculture 


FT.  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


CORN— Part  II 


Corn  Culture 

By    HARRY    B.    POTTER,    B.  S. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Crops 
in  Iowa  State  College 


Ttis  is  the  Second  of    a  Series  of  Four  Books  giving  a  Complete  Course  of  Instruction 

on  Corn. 


COPYRIGHT,  1911 
The  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from 
this  paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While 
it  is  not  intended  that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the 
text  to  memory,  still  there  is  nothing:  contained  in  the  text 
which  is  not  absolutely  essential  for  the  intelligent  corn 
grower  to  know.  For  your  own  good  never  refer  to  the 
examination  questions  until  you  have  finished  your  study 
of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examination 
paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


Tbe  Photograpts  used  in  this  book  ^vere  obtained  through  tbe  courtesy 
of  Iowa  State  College 


Part  II— CORN 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  production  of  a  large  amount  of  good  corn  during  any 
given  season  does  not  depend  upon  any  one  factor.  It  depends 
upon  a  great  number  of  considerations,  the  absence  of  any  one  of 
Avhich  will  cause  a  loss  to  the  individual  concerned.  The  subject 
of  this  second  study  in  corn  has  to  do  with  the  factors  leading  to  a 
high  yield  of  corn.  Of  course,  our  object  in  studying  corn,  no  mat- 
ter what  line  of  work  we  are  following,  is  to  learn  how  to  secure 
a  greater  number  of  bushels  to  the  acre ;  but  when  we  speak  of 
".corn  culture,"  we  think  of  those  things  which  afifect  the  crop 
directly,  such  as  the  plowing  of  the  ground,  the  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed,  the  selection  of  the  seed  corn,  and  the  methods  of  hand- 
ling that  seed  corn  before  it  is  ready  to  be  put  into  the  field.  So 
Corn  Culture  has  to  do  with  those  things  that  the  average  farmer 
meets  in  every  day  life ;  those  things  which  cause  so  much  trouble 
if  not  cared  for  properly,  and  give  such  satisfaction  if  followed 
CO!  rectly.  Of  course  many  counties  of  every  state  are  now  inter- 
ested in  local  corn  shows  of  some  kind  and  these  shows  exhibit 
corn  which' is  of  a  certain  type  or  variety,  and  the  men  exhibiting 
those  varieties  say  that  that  corn  is  the  best  for  their  conditions  be- 
cause it  yields  the  most.  In  most  cases  where  these  local  shows 
are  held,  we  find  table  after  table  covered  with  fine  corn  which  is 
said  to  be  high  yielding.  For  example ;  word  has  just  come  to  the 
writer's  desk  concerning  a  local  corn  show  for  a  town  of  about 
three  thousand  inhabitants,  the  corn  being  sent  to  this  show  only 


52 


CORN 


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1%. 


CORN     .  53 

by  those  farmers  who  traded  at  the  town  itself.  As  a  result  of  a 
little  work  of  this  kind^  there  were  shown  217  entries  which 
amounted  to  3186  ears.  This  is  but  one  example,  among  hun- 
dreds, of  the  interest  that  is  'being-  taken  in  corn  shows  and  corn 
judging  over  the  country,  but  this  in  itself  only  helps  toward  the 
greater  work  which  this  study  aims  to  consider. 

The  object  of  corn  breeding  comes  to  the  attention  of  every 
man  who  is  raising  any  corn  at  all  and  it  is  a  subject  that  is  worthy 
the  study  of  any  one.  Men  are  working  in  this  country,  and  in  the 
countries  wherever  corn  is  grown,  to  produce,  by  up-to-date  meth- 
ods, those  types  of  corn  which  will  vield  the  highest;  because  after 
all  is  said  and  done,  it  is  the  yield  that  the  farmers  of  the  country 
desire. 

But  after  we  have  considered  these  methods  of  breeding  and 
perhaps  have  put  some  of  them  into  practice  on  the  farm,  there 
are  still  the  problems  remaining  which  are  those  of  more  practical 
and  immediate  importance,  and  those  problems  come  under  the 
subject  of  corn  culture.  It  might  be  added  also  that  the  subject  of 
the  history  of  corn,  the  origin  of  the  corn  plant,  and  the  botany 
connected  with  the  growing  of  such  plants  as  corn,  are  of  interest 
to  most  people  because  of  the  relation  that  such  facts  have  to  the 
growing  of  corn  itself  from  the  commercial  standpoint.  For  ex- 
ample, we  take  the  common  everyday  fact  that  the  farmer  notices 
when  he  is  in  the  field,  that  of  the  production  of  silks  from  the 
young  and  developing  ear  of  corn.  The  farmer  who  is  after  the 
bushels  per  acre  does  not  particularly  want  to  know  what  the  silk 
is  made  of,  how  it  acts  in  order  to  produce  kernels  on  the  cob,  of 
what  value  the  pollen  is  as  it  falls  on  the  silk,  and  such  things  as 
that,  but  if  he  knows  these  things  as  they  were  taken  up  in  studv 
I.,  he  will  know  how  to  handle  his  crop  in  a  much  better  fashion 
than  if  he  went  at  the  work  blindly. 

So'  we  might  define  culture  of  corn  as  the  immediate  work 
which  is  done  to  produce  immediate  results  ;  remembering'  that  a 
knowledge  of  these  other  items,  which  do  not  bear  directly  upon 
the  work  in  the  field  is  necessary  if  the  so-called  cultural  methods 
are  to  be  followed  wisely. 


54  CORN 

LOW  YIELDS. 

The  fact  that  there  have  been  a  great  many  high  yielding 
pieces  of  corn  in  almost  ever}^  community  does  not  cover  up  the 
fact  that  there  are  a  great  many  pieces  where  a  low  yield  of  corn 
predominates.  Take  for  example  the  figures  which  were  given 
for  the  year  1909.  It  is  noticed  that  the  average  yield  per  acre  for 
the  United  States  was  2Sy2  bushels.  Anyone  will  admit  that  this 
was  a  low  yield  of  corn,  and  the  corn  grower  will  always  make  the 
statement  that  if  he  could  not  grow  more  corn  to  the  acre  than 
that,  he  would  quit  his  work.  The  figures  given  in  connection 
with  corn  growing"  in  the  United  States  showed  that  at  no  time 
for  a  period  of  ten  years  had  the  yield  per  acre  been  over  twenty- 
eight  bushels.  If  this  is  true,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  is, 
there  must  have  been,  somewhere,  some  very  poor  corn  in  order 
that  the  average  would  be  pulled  down  so  low. 

Corn  experts  all  over  the  United  States  have  tried  to  solve  the 
problem  of  why  so  many  acres  were  wasted  in  the  raising  of  corn, 
and  the  work  that  they  have  done  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
there  are  five  main  reasoijs  why  corn  does  not  yield  as  well  as 
might  be  expected. 

Reasons  for  Low  Yield.  Low  yields  of  corn  will  be  due  to  one 
or  more  of  the  following  facts : 

1.  Varieties  of  corn  not  suited  to  the  conditions  where  grown. 

2.  Poor  seed. 

3.  The  faulty  handling  of  good  seed. 

4.  Poor  seed  bed. 

5.  Seasonal  influences. 

It  will  be  noticed  as  these  items  are  considered  that  there  is 
only  one  beyond  the  control  of  the  farmer,  and  that  one  is  the  last. 
But  if  the  farmer  loses  a  crop  of  corn,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he 
will  say  that  the  season  was  to  blame  for  it,  while  it  might  have 
been  that  one  of  the  first  four  factors,  for  which  he  was  responsible, 
and  which  he  did  not  take  care  of  properly,  was  at  fault. 

So  the  work  of  this  study  will  be  to  consider  just  what  can  be 
done  with  the  first  four  items  in  order  that  maximum  yields  will 
result;  and  just  what  influence  the  season  will  have  upon  the  re- 
sults of  our  work. 


CORN  55 

THE  SEED. 

AVithin  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  a  great  deal  of  im- 
portance has  been  given  to  the  selection  of  proper  seed  for  the 
growth  of  all  of  our  farm  crops ;  and  rightly  so,  because  if  all  the 
other  factors  of  a  high  yield  of  the  crop  are  present  and  poor  seed 
is  put  into  the  ground,  there  can  be  but  one  result  and  that  will 
be  a  disappointment  to  the  grower.  In  fact,  if  we  drop  out  any 
one  factor,  the  other  factors  are  not  complete  enough  in  themselves 
to  produce  the  results  which  would  be  expected.  But  this  item  of 
the  seed,  which  has  caused  so  much  concern,  especially  with  corn, 
during  the  past  few  years,  seems  to  be  more  important  and  funda- 
mental than  some  of  the  other  matters.  For  example,  it  is  al- 
together possible  to  have  a  fair  yield  of  corn  in  a  medium  grade 
of  soil,  but  just  as  soon  as  we  have  a  poor  ear  of  corn  in  the  four- 
teen ^vhich  are  necessary  to  plant  the  acre,  just  so  soon  is  the 
yield  per  acre  of  our  corn  reduced  very  materially. 


Suitable  Varieties. 

A  few  3^ears  ago  it  was  not  thought  of  serious  consequence  to 
change  corn  from  one  locality  to  another;  but  there  is  hardly  a 
farmer  nowadays  who  does  not  realize  that  if  seed  corn  is  pur- 
chased from  some  place  other  than  where  the  corn  is  expected  to 
be  grown,  the  results  in  the  field  will  not  be  at  all  satisfactory. 
Every  Experiment  Station  in  the  United  States  where  corn  is 
raised  as  a  crop  has  shown  very  plainly  this  fact  to  be  true;  namely, 
that  if  corn  is  moved  out  of  the  climate,  or  off  from  the  soil,  where 
it  is  accustomed  to  grow,  it  will  not  yield  as  much  mature  corn  as 
it  had  been  in  the  habit  of  yielding  in  the  place  from  which  it  came. 
For  example,  when  Johnson  County  White  corn  was  so  popular 
because  of  winning  so  many  premiums  at  the  National  Corn  Shows, 
men  from  every  state  in  the  union  decided  that  they  wanted  to 
raise  Johnson  County  White  and  they  proposed  to  order  some. 
Railroad  men  thought  that  they  would  be  doing  a  great  thing  for 
the  country  if  they  distributed  this  prize-winning  corn  over  the 
territory  through  which  their  railroad  ran ;  and  so-  both  north  and 
south  there  were  men  growing  Johnson  County  Wliite  or  trying  to 


56  CORN 

g-row  it;  many  of  them  with  complete  failures  from  the  start.     But 
those,  who  were  successful  the  first  year,  soon  found  that  that  vari- 
ety of  corn  Avould  not  be  successful  under  their  conditions.    In  most 
cases,  there  were  two  conditions  which  wxre  violated;  the  soil  and' 
the  climate. 

Corn  ought  to  be  raised  on  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  under 
the  same  climatic  conditions  year  after  year  if  the  very  best  results 
are  to  be  obtained.  So  a  man  in  some  part  of  one  state  can  not 
hope  to  get,  in  most  cases,  the  results  of  his  friend  in  some  other 
part  of  the  state  unless  he  grows  his  own  corn.  Or,  to  express  it 
in  the  more  common  language,  it  does  not  pay  to  move  corn  north 
or  south,  from  one  soil  to  another,  nor  east  and  west  very  great 
distances  unless  the  soils  are  identical. 

So  in  considering  the  varities  which  are  adapted  to  the  local- 
ity where  the  corn  is  desired,  the  fact  of  the  environment  of  the 
seed  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  might  be  added  here 
that  if  any  one  desires  to  introduce  a  new  type  of  corn,  that  can  be 
done ;  but  it  requires  six  or  seven  j^ears  of  patient  work  to  get  the 
corn  acclimated ;  and  that  is,  of  course,  not  profitable  for  the  man 
who  wants  to  get  quick  returns  from  his  investment. 


SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN. 

It  is  a  pretty  safe  plan,  then,  to  select  seed  corn  froin  the 
home  field  for  the  reason  that  better  results  will  be  secured  than 
if  seed  is  imported  from  any  distance.  Of  course,  if  it  is  impossible 
to  make  the  home  farm  produce  the  seed  that  you  want  for  a  given 
year.the  next  best  thing  is  to  secure  seed  from  the  nearest  place 
where  the  type  of  corn  that  is  desired  is  grown.  If  seed  companies 
are  relied  upon  to  secure  the  seed,  it  would  be  well  to  check  their 
Avork  as  carefully  as  possible  in  order  to  know  that  the  guar- 
antee of  the  seed  house  is  really  worth  Avhat  it  claims  to  be.  Or, 
to  say  it  in  another  way,  if  seed  can  not  be  secured  where  the  eyes 
of  the  purchaser  can  see  it  on  the  stalks  in  the  field,  it  will  be  Avell 
to  use  every  precautionary  measure  before  the  sale  actually  takes 
place.  But  in  the  work  of  the  study,  we  will  assume  that  the  corn 
is  taken  from  the  home  fields.     Then  the  matter  of  varieties  AviH 


CORN 


57 


m 
<^ 

m 
o 


58  CORN 

not  bother  to  any  extent.  Varieties  are  important,  but  in  many 
cases  the  variety  which  is  best  suited  to  one  place  is  not  suited  to 
another. 


Selecting  From  the  Home  Field. 

In  selecting-  seed  corn  from  the  hom'e  locality,  there  are  just 
three  ways  possible ;  first,  to  select  from  the  crib ;  second,  to  select 
from  the  field  at  the  time  of  husking ;  third,  to  select  the  seed  corn 
before  the  time  of  husking-  by  entering  the  field  and  noticing  the 
ears  as  they  have  developed  on  the  stalk.  The  advantage  of  the 
first  method  is  plain.  It  requires  less  work  to  select  from  the 
crib,  providing  the  man  who  is  doing  the  selecting  is  not  particular 
what  kind  of  corn  he  secures,  and  usually  he  is  not  particular,  if 
he  waits  for  the  crib  method  of  selection.  There  is  the  large  dis- 
advantage in  this  method  of  finding  very  many  of  the  ears  molded 
or  rotten  or  damaged  by  the  frost  to  such  an  extent  that  even 
though  they  happen  to  be  good  ears  of  corn  they  are  worthless 
from  the  seed  standpoint.  Another  disadvantage  of  this  method 
is  that  the  ear  in  its  relation  to  the  stalk  can  not  be  known.  Now- 
adays the  stalk  is  watched  by  those  men  who  make  a  very  careful 
study  of  the  subject  of  corn. 

The  second  method  which  is  possible  for  the  selection  of 
corn,  that  which  would  select  from  the  field  at  the  time  of  husking, 
is  a  quick  method  but  has  the  disadvantage  of  very  often  securing 
ears  for  seed  which  have  been  damaged  by  the  frost  or  rain  so  that 
their  germinating  powers  are  not  high.  This  method,  however, 
will  remain  a  very  good  method  for  practical  purposes,  but  will,  no 
doubt,  be  soon  followed  on  most  of  the  farms  of  the  country  by  the 
third  method,  which  would  undertake  to  select  the  corn  from  the 
field  before  the  first  heavy  frosts  come.  This  is  ideal  and  where  it 
is  followed  to  any  extent  meets  with  a  great  deal  of  success.  Real- 
ly, the  last  method  is  one  which  every  farmer  can  follow;  and 
directions  will  be  given  here  only  for  this  one  practice,  for  those 
who  are  working  constantly  with  corn  know  that  there  are  few  if 
any  farmers  who  can  not  select  their  corn  from  the  field.  Of 
course, if  the  last  method  can  not  be  followed  for  some  reason  pe- 
culiar to  the  farm  where  the  work  is  being  done,  the  method  of 


CORN  59. 

putting'  a  box  on  the  back  of  the  husking  wagon  and  collecting  the 
best  ears  at  that  time  is  better  than  not  selecting  from  the  field 
at  all.  In  fact,  fairly  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  in  this 
way,  but  by  far  the  most  of  the  successes  have  come  from  those 
who  select  early  in  the  year. 


Method  of  Selecting  Seed  Corn. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  farmer  does  not  have  a  special  part 
of  his  field  which  he  is  devoting  to  the  raising  of  seed  corn,  it 
will  be  necessary  for  him  to  use  the  general  field  from  which  to 
make  his  selections.  The  date  of  the  first  killing  frost  for  the  av- 
erage year  is  usually  known  in  every  community,  and  the  selection 
of  the  corn  should  be  done  before  this  first  killing  frost  comes.  To 
wait  until  after  the  killing  frost,  means  to  lose  a  great  deal  of  the 
benefit  which  comes  from  the  field  method  of  selection. 

In  the  states  where  corn  is  made  the  main  crop  of  the  farm, 
there  is  usually  set  aside  a  certain'  period  of  time  in  which  it  is 
recommended  to  select  all  corn  intended  for  seed  purposes.  For 
example.  South  Dakota  sets  the  date  September  lOth  as  the  last 
date  on  Avhich  any  corn  should  be  picked ;  Minnesota  says  Septem- 
ber 20th;  Iowa  says  the  last  ten  days  in  September;  but  all  states, 
where  the  frost  is  apt  to  aft'ect  the  work  at  all,  empasize  the  point 
of  selecting  this  corn  early.  The  reason  is  that  if  corn  is  left  in 
the  field  subject  to  the  weather  conditions,  the  germination  is  apt 
to  be  very  poor.  After  the  date  is  well  in  mind  and  plans  are  laid 
to  select  the  corn  according  to  these  directions,  the  farmer  will 
prepare  himself  with  a  grain  sack  which  he  can  easily  tie  over  his 
shoulder  by  a  piece  of  binder  twine  or  something  similar. 

As  he  enters  the  field  to  do  this  selecting,  he  will  have  no  team 
to  bother  him,  no  wagon  to  be  in  the  way,  but  can  spend  all  of  his 
time  in  noticing  the  points  of  the  stalk  and  the  ear  as  he  could  not 
in  any  other  way  do'.  Passing  down  between  two  of  the  rows, 
he  can  notice  on  both  sides  whether  there  are  any  ears  born 
at  the  height  he  desires.  It  is  definitely  known  that  the  higher 
the  ear  is  produced  on  the  stalk,  the  later  is  its  maturity.  So, 
in  the  states  where  early  maturity  is  a  prominent  factor  in  the  pro- 


6o 


CORN 


Plate  3— Stalks  Showing-  Difeerent  Characters 


CORN  6i 

duction  of  good  corn,  this  fact  must  be  realized.  xA-s  the  breeder 
moves  along-  in  the  field  making  his  selections,  he  will  notice  the 
kind  of  stalk  on  which  the  ear  is  grown ;  whether  the  ear  hangs  at 
the  angle  he  desires  or  not;  whether  the  husk  fits  tightly  or  not; 
how  tall  the  stalk  is  ;  and  such  points  as  these  which  are  going  to 
afifect  the  development  of  a  corn  such  as  he  will  desire. 

Then,  after  the  points  of  the  stalk  are  noted,  'by  pulling  the 
husk  back  a  short  way  the  tip  of  the  ear  which  is  enclosed  can 
easily  be  seen.  If  it  suits  the  farmer  to  any  fair  degree,  he  can  pick 
it  and  put  it  in  the  sack  which  is  hanging  on  his  shoulder,  and  go 
on  looking  for  more  ears  having  the  same  qualities  that  the  one 
just  selected  had. 

This  will  be  no  easy  task.  It  will  require  patience  and  time, 
but  the  man  who  is  in  earnest  for  better  corn  can  well  afford  to  put 
in  this  time  to  get  the  results  which  he  could  not  get  otherwise. 
It  may  be  that  in  going  over  a  field  of  ten  or  fifteen  acres,  there  will 
only  be  twenty  or  twenty-five  ears  of  the  type  that  he  desired,  but 
if  these  are  selected  carefully,  it  will  mean  that  a  start  has  been 
made  toward  a  much  better  crop  of  corn  in  the  years  to  come.  In 
all  of  this  work  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  rapid  change  can 
not  be  made  within  a  year's  time,  for  nature  does  not  permit  any 
such  wonder  changes. 

Just  what  the  points  of  the  ear  and  the  stalk  are  and  how  the 
farmer  may  learn  to  notice  these  things  as  he  is  moving  through 
the  field  will  be  taken  up  in  another  study. 


STORAGE  OF  SEED  CORN. 

After  the  seed  has  been  carefully  selected,  the  matter  of  proper 
storage  comes  up  for  attention ;  and  it  is  a  matter  which  needs  to 
have  the  consideration  of  every  one  because  a  high  percentage  of 
the  failures  in  growing  corn  are  due  to  the  fact  that  while  the  corn 
was  being  stored,  improper  conditions  were  brought  near  it  in  one 
way  or  another  and  the  vitality  of  the  seed  was  injured.  Our 
grandfathers  and  great  grandfathers  used  to  take  two  ears  of  corn, 
tie  them  together  by  the  husks,  and  throw  them  over  the  rail 
fence,  or  a  wire,  where  they  might  dry-     The  principles  involved  in 


62 


CORN 


n 
o 


a. 


CORN 


63 


Pirate  5 — Beginning-  the  Double  String-  Method 
taking-  care  of  seed  corn  in  this  way  are  not  far  different  from 
what  we  have  today.  But  today  we  have  newer  and  more  up-to- 
date  methods  of  accomplishing  the  same  purpose.  Manufacturers 
of  farming  imiplements  began,  as  soon  as  the  idea  of  good  storage 
became  prevalent,  to  manufacture  devices  which  would  keep  the 
grain  as  was  desired.       There  was  just  one  thing-  to  accomplish. 


64  CORN 

but  that  one  thing  was  very  important ;  and  that  was  that  each  ear 
should    have    a    free    circulation    of   air    of   moderate    temperature 
around  it.     Or  in  other  w^ords,  each  ear  of  corn  must  be  supplied 
with  an  atmosphere  around  it  that  will  take  out  the  excess  mois-- 
ture  and  still  not  injure  the  tender  germ  within  each  kernel. 

Likewise  the  experiment  stations  have  been  working  on  some- 
thing that  would  fit  the  conditions  and  allow  the  ears  to.  be 
accessible  at  any  time  during  the  period  of  storage.  Various 
methods  of  hanging  ears  by  strings  have  been  devised  and  the  com- 
mon method  of  tieing  a  string  around  the  central  part  of  the  ear 
and  follow  that  by  another  ear  with  the  string  tied  around  its  cen- 
tral part,  and  another  with  a  string  tied  around  it,  and  so  on  until 
twelve  or  fourteen  ears  are  hung  together  is  not  a  bad  plan.  An- 
other plan  has  been  devised  which  gives  good  circulation  of  air  to 
the  various  ears.  That  method  uses  a  piece  of  binder  twine  per- 
haps sixteen  or  twenty  feet  long  tied  together  and  the  ears  placed 
in  the  double  piece  of  twine  as  it  hangs  from  the  two  hands  of  the 
man  who  is  doing  that  part  of  the  Avork.  Another  man  places  the 
ears  one  by  one  in  the  double  cord  and  the  man  watli  the  string 
passes  his  hands  through  and  through  as  the  ears  are  placed  in 
their  positions.  The  man  who  is  working  with  the  cord  holds 
tightly  with  his  foot  on  the  ear  which  is  lowest.  This  holds  the 
string  very  tight  and  in  so  doing  makes  an  orderly  piece  of  work. 

It  does  not  matter,  though,  what  system  is  follO;^ed,  provid- 
ing the  method  allows  the  free  circuiatiori-  of  the  ait,  as  already 
indicated.  ::? 

The  most  important  factor  with  which  we  have  to  deal  in 
the  storing  of  corn  is  the  moisture  content  of  that  corn.  The  fol- 
lowing table  which  was  worked  out  by  a  couple  of  men  at  Iowa 
State  College  several  years  ago^  illustrates  the  amount  of  water  that 
was  found  in  the  crop  at  various  seasons  of  the  harvesting  period. 

DATE —  KERNELS  COB 

September   14 4i-78%  58.58% 

September  21 37-35  57-17 

September  28 33-04  55-86 

October  5 28.52  52.28 

October  12 25.97  49-05 

October  19 20.15  40-99 

October  26 22.09  37-24 

November  2   .      .     . 17-83  26.82 


CORN 


65 


Plate  6— The  Ears  are  Ready  to  be  Hung  Up 


66  CORN 

If  the  moisture  is  removed  as  rapidly  as  possible  without  ap- 
Dlying-  a  direct  fire  to  the  ears  of  corn,  results  are  very  satisfactory. 
Really,  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  storing-  process  are  more  im- 
portant than  all  the  rest  of  the  time  combined,  as  in  that  time  a 
large  percentage  of  the  moisture  leaves  the  ear.  When  that  is 
accomplished  there  is  not  much  danger  of  cold  or  heat  injuring 
the  germ. 

The  question  naturally  arises  just  where  we  can  store  this 
seed  corn  in  order  to  get  the  results  which  have  been  mentioned. 
After  a  proper  system  of  hanging  the  ears  is  discovered  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  find  a  place  suitable  for  putting  into  efifect 
these  ideas  it  is  always  anything-  but  advisable  to  put  seed  corn 
over  stalls  or  mangers  or  small  grain  bins  or  anywhere  that  the 
moisture  from  these  other  things  is.  apt  to  collect  on  the  corn  and 
mold  it.  It  has  often  been  recommended  that  the  best  place  for 
storing  is  the  attic  over  the  ordinary  living-  room.  But  as  a  good 
many  homes  are  not  equipped  with  an  attic  suitable  for  this  work, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  look  for  a  seed  house  or  a  tool  house  or 
some  building  of  that  kind  where  the  evils  will  not  be  present. 

Another  student  at  Iowa  State  College  who  did  a  great  deal 
of  work  along  corn  lines  experimented  with  the  problem  of  how 
to  store  corn  to  the  best  advantage.  After  much  detailed  work 
had  been  accomplished  by  him  and  after  his  results  were  con- 
sidered for  some  time,  the  following  conclusions  were  drawn. 

First,  high  temperature  and  low  humidity,  as  were  the  con- 
ditions in  the  green  house,  are  detrimental  to  the  vitality  of  seed 
corn. 

Second,  low  humidity  and  average  room  temperature,  as  il- 
lustrated by  results  obtained  from  corn  stored  in  the  Farm  Crops 
Laboratory,  are  also  injurious  to  the  seed. 

Third,  high  humidity  and  somewhat  low  temperatures  are  not 
so  detrimental  to  corn  as  somewhat  high  temperatures  or  low 
humidity  as  shown  by  results  of  corn  stored  in  the  basement  of 
the  Agricultural  Building. 

Fourth,  average  humidity  with  low  temperature,  as  shown 
by  results  of  corn  stored  outside,  show  less  ill  effects  than  high 
humidity  and  low  temperatures. 


CORN  ^1 

Fifth,  average  humidity  and  average  temperature,  aided  by 
good  ventilation,  as  ilhistrated  by  results  of  corn  stored  in  the 
attic,  give  the  best  results. 

Sixth,  the  amount  of  moisture  present  in  the  corn  and  that 
present  in  the  atmosphere  have  more  influence  on  the  vitality  of 
the  seed  than  the  degree  of  temperature. 

Working  along  this  same  line,  some  other  men  found  some 
results  which  were  very  similar  in  character  to  those  which  have 
been  mentioned  and  the  conclusions  they  drew  were: 

First,  when  very  full  of  moisture,  even  freezing  for  a  short 
time  is  detrimental. 

Second,  excessive  moisture  when  not  attended  with  low  tem- 
perature also  weakens  vitality.  So,  considering  these  facts,  the 
importance  of  proper  storage  is  apparent. 


SELECTING   THE  TYPE. 

'  After  a  great  many  ears  have  been  selected  and  stored  as  has 
been  indicated,  and  the  time  comes  to  arrange  these  ears  for  plant- 
ing, we  will  say  about  the  first  of  March  or  a  little  sooner,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  pick  out  the  ears  that  we  want  for  seed 
from  what  we  call  the  type  standpoint.  A  later  study  will  indicate 
a  little  more  wdiat  is  meant  by  selecting"  an  ear  for  a  certain  type, 
but  taking  for  granted  a  farmer  knows  what  he  wants  along  certain 
lines,  the  method  of  getting  at  the  result  is  what  will  be  considered 
here.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  room  in  the  house  or  in  the 
barn  or  anywhere  on  the  farm  that  is  too  good  for  working  with 
the  seed  corn  in  it.  The  ears  of  corn  ought  to  be  laid  out  after 
they  are  perfectly  dry,  side  by  side  with  the  butts  of  the  ears  toward 
the  man  who  is  doing  the  work.  Perhaps  these  ears  will  be  laid 
out  on  the  floor,  or  there  may  be  room  on  the  work  bench  for  the 
ears  which  have  been  thus  far  selected.  But  in  most  cases  there 
will  be  too  many  to  have  any  place  for  them  on  tables,  and  so  the 
floor  can  be  easily  used.  If  the  floor  is  of  such  a  character  that 
it  doesn't  matter  if  a  nail  is  driven  into  the  wood,  it  would  be  well 
to  take'  these  ears  and  by  means  of  nails  tacked  in  at  the  ends  of 
the  columns  to  make  the  ears  stationary  or  so  that  they  will  not 


68 


CORN 


CORN  69 

shift  about.  Then  the  man  who  is  doing  the  selecting-  can  go 
through  carefully  and  we  will  say  that  there  are  several  ears  he 
does  not  like  at  all  from  the  type  standpoint.  These  may  be 
thrown  out.  There  ma}"-  be  others  that  are  partially  satisfactory 
and  so  they  will  just  simply  be  pushed  out  a  little  to  indicate  that 
they  will  not  be  used  unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  do  so. 
After  this  is  done  and  the  number  of  ears  are  reduced  to  perhaps 
double  the  number  that  are  actually  needed  for  planting  the  next 
year,  the  seed  is  ready  for  testing. 


TESTING  CORN. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  test  corn  before  it  is  put 
into  the  field.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  men  say  that  they  can 
tell  by  looking  at  an  ear  of  corn  whether  it  will  grow  or  not.  But 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  probably  have  no  more  insight  into  this 
matter  than  have  the  hundreds  of  men  over  the  country  who  are 
working  every  day  with  corn.  The  case  recently  came  to  the 
writer's  notice  where  out  of  six  bushels  of  corn  which  had  been 
shipped  out  of  a  farm  seed  house  for  good  seed  corn,  only  one  ear 
would  grow,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  almost  every  ear  looked, 
even  after  the  germ  had  been  cut  open  and  examined  carefully, 
as  if  it  would  grow.  So  it  is  necessary,  from  the  standpoint  of 
knowing  whether  the  corn  will  grow  or  not,  to  test  it.  And  of 
course  it  is  easily  recognized,  without  any  experiments  to  show  the 
fact,  that  unless  the  corn  will  grow  it  will  not  produce  a  good 
stand ;  and  imless  we  have  a  pretty  good  stand,  we  can  not  expect 
a  good  yield.  We  mean-  of  course,  by  a  good  stand  of  corn  that 
which  will  produce  the  greatest  possible  yield.  And  if  it  is  found 
that,  for  the  conditions  under  which  the  farmer  is  working,  three 
stalks  to  the  hill  are  desired,  anything  short  of  that  reduces  the 
perfectness  of  the  stand.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down  for 
any  section  in  regard  to  this  point.  But  if  the  seed  is  found  tO'  be 
poor  in  germination,  a  good  stand  can  not  be  expected.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  illustrate  the  point  that  the  yield  per  acre  will  be 
influenced  directly  by  the  per  cent,  of  the  stand  and  of  course  it  is 
easily  seen  how  the  per  cent,  of  the  stand  is  regulated  by  the  germ- 
ination powers  of  the  seed. 


70 


CORN 


Stand  and  Yield 

The  following  test  was  conducted  in  1906  in  one  County  of  Iowa. 


TEN  HIGHEST  YIELDING  SAMPLES 

TEN  LOWEST  YIELDING  SAMPLES 

Per  Cent.  Stand 

Bushels  Per  Acre 

Per  Cent.  Stand 

Bushels  Per  Acre 

78.1 

86.0 

43-8 

46.7 

64.8 

85.3 

79.1 

47-4 

87.6 

84.0 

54.8 

51-3 

85.4 

82.6 

50.2 

51.7 

88.8 

80.8 

76.7 

55.8 

89.4 

80. 1 

41.9 

56.9 

78.7 

78.1 

61. 1 

57-3 

84.6 

78.0 

94.8 

58.1 

92.4 

77.2 

85.0 

58.6 

87.3 

74.8 

77-8 

59-3 

Ave.    83.7 

80.7 

66.5 

54-3 

Perhaps  the  question  will  arise  here  as  to  what  we  mean  by 
a  stand  of  corn  and  how  we  may  determine  whether  that  corn  is 
what  we  desire  or  noi.  A  man  passing  by  the  roadside  glancing 
mto  a  field  of  corn  will  more  often  estimate  the  stand  of  corn 
higher  than  it  is,  than  he  will  lower.  It  is  impossible  to  get  a 
perfect  stand  of  corn,  but  of  course  a  great  deal  can  be  done  toward 
that  end.  A  man  who  desires  to  ascertain  what  his  field  is  doing 
can  enter  the  field  at  any  point  and  if  the  field  is  check-rowed  the 
best  plan  will  be  for  him  to  work  diagonally  across  the  field.  In 
this  way  he  will  not  be  drawing  conclusions  from  the  wrong  data. 
If  he  follow'ed  the  row  straight  down,  in  all  probability  some  defect 
of  the  planter  or  of  the  method  of  putting  the  seed  into  the  ground 
would  affect  his  ideas.  He  will  go  along  hill  by  hill  and  count  the 
stand  and  perhaps  he  will  get  results  something  like  this : 

3—3—1—2—3—1—1—3—3—2—4— 


5—1—3- 


-2—3—1—1- 


Or  it  is  possible  that  figures  like  the  following  will  be  the  result 
of  his  count : 

1_1_0_3— 1— 2— 3— 0— 0— 3— 1— 
2— 3— 1—0— 1—1— 2— 1—3— 2-0 


CORN  71 

In  the  first  case,  the  stand  was  surprisingly  uniform ;  in  the 
second  case,  the  reverse-  But  these  figures  are  exactly  what  can 
he  found  in  a  good  many  fields  over  the  country  and  resulting  from 
this  uniform  stand  the  average  for  the  United  States  has 
Ibeen  reduced  to  around  twenty-six  bushels  per  acre.  With  these 
figures  in  mind, and  remembering  that  the  greatest  part  of  the  poor 
stand  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  seed  would  not  grow,  it  becomes 
compulsory  to  test  seed  corn. 

There  are  two  wa3^s  that  this  corn  may  be  tested.  The  ears 
of  corn  which  may  have  been  selected  may  be  shelled  together 
and,  if  the  grain  is  well  mixed,  a  representative  sample  may  be 
taken  from  the  whole  lot  and  perhaps  duplicate  samples  of  one  hun- 
dred kernels  each  tested  in  a  germinator  of  some  kind.  When  the 
germination  of  this  grain  is  read,  it  Avill  be  noticed  that  perhaps  in 
one  case  ninety-eight  out  of  the  one  hundred  kernels  germinated.  Of 
course  the  farmer  can  go  ahead  with  such  grain  and  plant  it.  But 
his  neighbor  may  under  this  test  have  fifty  percent,  vitalit}'  shown. 
This  would  mean  discarding  entirely  the  seed  corn  which  has 
been  prepared  and  going  elsewhere  to  purchase  new  corn  which  as 
has  been  stated  before,  is  a  very  doubtful  practice.  Instead  of 
shelling  the  ears  as  above  indicated,  the  corn  may  be  tested  by 
selecting  a  few  kernels  from  each  ear  and  all  of  these  kernels  put 
in  the  test.  In  either  case  we  can  term  the  method  a  general  one 
for  the  testing  of  seed  corn. 

By  far  the  best  method  is  that  which  is  known  as  the  individ- 
ual ear  test.  The  ear  of  corn,  in  this  kind  of  work,  stands  out 
as  the  unit  of  otir  endeavors.  And  by  testing  kernels  from  indi- 
vidual ears,  and  b)^  keeping  a  record  of  these  individual  ears,  we 
have  an  exact  basis  from  which  to  work.  So  the  advice  can  safely 
be  given  to  test  each  ear  of  corn  before  planting;  not  in  a  general 
way  but  in  a  definite  wa}^  so  that  an  ear  itself,  if  it  is  dead,  may  be 
discarded.  Whereas,  if  it  were  tested  in  a  general  way,  there 
would  be  no  way  of  discarding  a  bad  influence  of  this  kind- 

The  riiethod  of  testing' these  individual  ears  follows: 

The  ears  of  corn  are  laid  out  side  by  side  for  the  work.  Then 
the  preparation  of  a  germinating  box  is  the  first  matter  to  be  con- 
sidered.    It  is  true  that  there  are  on  the  market  at  the  present  time 


72  CORN 

several  makes  of  germinating  boxes.  But  there  is  no  form  which 
exceeds  the  vahie,  (as  far  as  learning  what  the  corn  will  do),  of 
the  ordinary  sand  or  sawdust  box  which  anyone  can  make.  It 
would  be  going-  into  a  great  deal  of  detail  to  give  the  method  of 
making  the  various  forms  of  seed  corn  testers,  but  the  following 
description  and  illustration  which  was  furnished  in  a  bulletin  by 
the  Purdue  Experiment  Station  at  LaFayette,  Indiana  will  answer 
the  purpose  here.  This  sand  box  has  proven  itself  very  efficient 
in  determining  whether  the  ears  of  corn  will  grow  or  not. 

"A  convenient  tester,  and  one  which  we  would  strongly 
recommend  every  farmer  to  use,  is  shown  in  the  illustration  below, 
and  may  be  made  as  follows :  Take  ordinary  inch  lumber  and 
make  a  shallow  tray  of  convenient  size,  say  about  two  by  three 
feet,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  deep.  Then  bore  small  holes 
through  the  sides  and  ends  about  two  inches  above  the  bottom 
and  about  an  inch  and  three-quarters  apart.  Through  these  holes 
string  light  galvanized  or  copper  wire  in  both  directions.  Then 
fill  the  tray  up  to  the  wires  with  sand,  earth  or  fine  sawdust. 
Sand  is  preferred,  because  it  is  clean  and  easily  kept  in  good  con- 
dition. Each  square  marked  off  on  the  surface  by  the  cross  wires 
is  intended  for  the  kernels  from  a  single  ear  of  corn-  Instead  of 
weaving  in  the  cross  wares  as  indicated,  a  piece  of  large  meshed 
wire  chicken  fence  may  be  fastened  in.  If  this  is  preferred,  the 
tray  should  be  made  two  inches  deep,  then  the  piece  of  chicken 
fence  fastened  on  top,  and  a  half-inch  strip  nailed  on  top  of  that  so 
as  to  raise  the  edges  of  the  tray  half  an  inch  above  the  wire  netting, 
as  in  the  other  case.  After  the  tray  has  been  filled  up  to  the  wire 
with  sand  or  other  material  as  directed  above  and  thoroughly 
moistened,  the  tester  is  ready  for  use.  If  much  corn  is  to  be 
tested,  several  of  these  testers  should  be  provided.  Thev  are 
easily  made,  and  with  good  care  will  last  many  years.  For  the 
average  farmer  one  will  be  sufficient,  as  about  three  bushels  of  seed 
ears  can  be  tested  at  one  time. 

"When  making  tests,  some  convenient  system  of  arranging 
the  ears  on  a  floor,  table,  shelf  or  rack  must  be  emplo3^ed,  so  that 
the  ear  corresponding  to  a  certain  square  in  the  tester  may  be 
readily  located.  Begin  filling  the  tester  by  placing  five  kernels 
from  the  first  ear,  selected  as  directed  above,  in  the  first  squares 


CORN  73 

at  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  and  fill  each  row  of  squares  in  regular 
order. 

"After  the  kernels  have  been  placed,  the  material  in  the  tester 
must  be  kept  thoroughly  moist.  Some  kind  of  cover  must  be 
used  to  keep  the  surface  from  drying,  and  if  this  is  properly  done 
tlie  kernels  need  not  be  buried  out  of  sight.  Some  kind  of  a  glass 
plate  or  frame  makes  the  most  satisfactory  cover.  This  should 
rest  loosely  on  the  edges  of  the  tester,  so  as  to  admit  some  air. 
Whh  such  a  cover,  the  soil  need  be  moistened  only  once  for  each 
test,   as  the   evaporated   moisture  will  condense  on  the  surface  of 


Plate  8 — A  Convenient  Germination  Box. 

the  glass  and  drop  down  again.  When  moistening  is  necessar}^ 
after  the  kernels  have  been  placed,  a  towel  or  other  cloth  should 
be  placed  on  the  surface  and  the  water  poured  gently  on  top.  If 
this  is  not  done,  the  water  poured  on  will  move  many  of  the  kernels 
out  of  place. 

''The  tester  should  be  placed  in  a  room  ranging  around  70 
degrees  F.  in  temperature,  as  stated  above.  All  kernels  which  do 
not  send  out  vigorous  root  and  stem  sprouts  within  seven  days, 
under  these  conditions,  should  be  considered  too  weak  to  germi- 
nate properlv  under  ordinary  field  conditions.     If  the  g-ermination 


74 


CORN 


of  any  lot  of  kernels  is  unsatisfactory,  the  ear  from  which  they  came 
should  be  discarded.  About  95  per  cent,  of  the  kernels  should 
germinate  strongly  within  the  seven  days. 

"The  seed  corn  tester  should  be  as  important  a  part  of  the 
corn  grower's  outfit  as  the  planter  or  cultivator,  and  its  use  should 
never  be  neglected.  A  handy  person  can  easily  make  an  individual 
ear  test  of  five  or  six  bushels  in  a  day,  and  the  labor  involved  will 
be  paid  for  many  times  over  in  the  better  stand  of  plants  and  the 
consequently  larger  crop  secured-" 

The  details  of  the  work  which  this  account  gives  makes  the 
matter  of  testing  the  corn  very  plain,  but  there  is  one  more  point 
which  ought  to  be  emphasized,  which  is  not  mentioned  in  these 
paragraphs ;  and  that  is  the  fact  that  the  ears  which  are  under  test 
should  be  very  carefully  handled  so  that  when  the  test  is  done  the 
proper  ears  can  be  easily  located.  Probably  the  'best  method  for 
accomplishing  this  result  on  the  average  farm  is  by  means  of  a 
nail  driven  between  each  ten  ears.  That  is,  as  the  ears  are  laid  out 
one  after  another  the  farmer  will  commence  to  count  from  left  to 
right  one  to  ten ;  drive  a  nail  or  two  in  the  floor  or  plank  On  which 
the  corn  is  lying;  count  off  ten  more  ears  and  drive  another  nail; 
count  O'ff  ten  more  and  drive  another ;  and  so  on  until  all  the  ears 
are  separated  into  groups  of  ten. 

The  testing  box  will  be  arranged,  if  thought  is  taken  before 
hand,  so  that  there  are  across  the  top  of  the  box  ten  divisions  or 
squares.  The  kernels  from  ear  No.  1  will  go  in  square  No.  1,  and 
kernels  from  ear  No.  2  in  square  No.  2,  and  so  on  across.  In  this 
way  there  is  no  danger  of  making  a  mistake.  Since  there  is 
always  danger  of  mixing  the  ears  in  some  way,  it  is  usually  best 
w^hen  working  with  a  certain  ear  to  push  the  ear,  next  to  that  one, 
up  next  to  the  others,  so  that  if  the  others  roll  into  the  place  of 
that  which  is  being  used  the  error  will  be  noticed  at  once. 

The  test  will  occupy  about  six  or  eight  days.  At  the  end  of 
that  time,  the  question  comes ;  what  ears  are  the  ones  that  are 
desired  and  what  are  not,  as  shown  by  the  germination  of  the  ker- 
nels? The  photograph  of  the  germinating  kernels  of  corn  and 
the  explanation  with  ^that  photograph  indicate  how  the  reading 
ought  to  be  made  and  what  those  readings  mean.     When  it  is  dis- 


CORN 


75 


Pirate  9— The  Germination  Box  Will  Show  the  Good  and  the  Bad  Kernels 


76 


CORN 


covered  what  kernels  are  the  bad  ones,  the  ears  from  which  they 
came  can  be  discarded  at  once  and  only  the  ears  which  show  a 
[terminating  power  of  the  very  strongest  type  will  be  used. 

Then  comes  the  w^ork  of  grading  the  corn  and  getting  it  ready 
for  the  planter. 


GRADING  THE  SEED   CORN. 

The  first  operation  of  course  is  the  shelling  of  the  ears,  which 
may  be  done  by  hand,  but  if  a  corn  sheller  of  small  capacity  is 
available,  that  will  be  satisfactory.  The  butt  and  tip  kernels  are 
'isually  shelled  off:'  before  the  main  ear  itself  is  shelled.  The 
reason   for  that   is   that  the   butt  and  tip  kernels  are  irregular  in 


Plate  lO—Shelling-  the  Butt  and  Tip  Kernels 


CORN 


n 


a 


rt 

K 

D. 

* 

a; 

4J 

— 

6 


78  CORN 

their  formation  and  if  excluded  in  the  beginning  will  not  bother 
at  any  other  part  of  the  operation.  It  is  often  argued  that  if  we 
remove  the  butt  and  tip  kernels  we  are  apt  to  breed  corn  that  does 
not  have  properl}^  filled  butts  and  tips,  but  this  has  been  proven 
by  all  experiment  station  work  in  the  country  tO'  be  a  fallacy.  The 
butt  and  tip  kernels  are  not  to  be  shelled  off  because  they  would 
not  yield  as  well  as  the  middle  kernels,  for  work  done  at  several 
of  the  experiment  stations  of  the  United  States  has  shown  that  as 
far  as  Anelding  power  is  concerned  the  butt  and  tip  kernels  have 
just  as  much  as  the  middle  kernels.  This  is  contrary  to  some 
common  notions,  but  it  is  now  known  to  be  a  fact.  The  advantage, 
then,  in  shelling  the  butts  and  tips  lies  in  keeping  the  grains  of 
uniform  type;  and  we  find  those  grains  on  the  central  part  of  each 
ear. 

Professor  T.  F.  Hunt  in  writing  on  this  subject  says:  "The 
Iowa  Station  found  that  when  all  the  grains  of  an  ear  were  used 
in  the  corn  planter  the  number  of  grains  dropped  at  one  time  varied 
from  one  to  six  grains,  the  planter  dropping  three  grains  to  the 
hill  sixty-six  times  out  of  a  hundred-  When  only  the  middle  grains 
of  the  ear  were  used,  the  planter  dropped  two  grains  eight  times 
and  three  grains  ninety-two  times  to  each  hundred  hills. 
Since  imiformity  of  stand  is  essential  to  maximum  yield,  it  is 
therefore  good  practice  to  discard  the  largest  oi  the  butt  and  the 
smallest  of  the  tip  grains.  It  is  also  found  that  in  order  to  secure 
uniformity  of  stand  it  is  essential  to  select  ears  having'  grains  of 
uniform  size.  It  was  found  when  long  and  short  grains  were 
mixed  together,  the  planter  dropped  three  grains  seventy-five  times 
out  of  one  hundred ;  while  when  planted  separately  with  proper 
plates  for  each,  the  planter  dropped  three  short  grains  ninety-five 
times  out  of  one  hundred  and  three  long  gi;ains  ninety-two  times 
out  of  one  hundred." 

This  brings  up  other  questions  regarding  the  preparation  of 
the  seed  after  it  has  been  tested  before  it  is  ready  for  the  planter 
box.  After  the  ears  have  been  butted  and  tipped  each  ear  should, 
be  shelled  separateh?^  and  the  kernels  from  that  ear  placed  in  a  box 
which  will  perhaps  be  the  one  labeled  "Large."  There  should  be 
at  least  two  other  boxes  labeled  respectively  "Medium"  and 
"Small,"  and  in  these  wnll  go  kernels  which  fit  the  directions.     In 


CORN 


79 


CO 


a 


0, 


8o  CORN 

other  words,  the  first  step  in  the  grading  of  the  corn  is  taken. 
Then,  as  soon  as  this  is  done,  perhaps  a  small  hand  grader  will  be 
convenient  for  use  and  this  will  "Separate  any  of  the  small  and 
poorly  developed  grains  that  happen  to  be  in  the  shelled  samples. 
After  the  hand  grader  is  used  and  these  irregular  kernels  removed 
in  this  way,  if  greater  care  is  to  be  given  the  plot  than  perhaps 
any  farmer  will  give  his  seed,  the  Kernels  will  be  hand  picked  and 
anv  that  show  special  defects  will  be  removed.  Then  the  final 
work  is  done  as  far  as  the  seed  is  concerned-  unless  there  be  a  little 
tramping  of  the  shelled  grain  which  operation  it  is  claimed  will  re- 
move some  of  the  chaff  from  the  kernels  so  that  there  will  be  no 
chance  for  obstructing  the  planter  when  the  kernels  are  put  in  the 
planter  box. 

Adjusting    the    Planter. 

Then  comes  the  work  of  arranging  the  planter  to  fit  the  seed 
that  has  l)een  selected.  That  can  be  easily  done  bv  raising  the 
planter  on  some  home-made  jack  of  some  kind,  putting  some  of 
the  small  seed  in  the  planter  box  and  finding  the  plate  which. suits 
that  seed  so  that  it  will  drop  three  (or  whatever  number  of 
kernels  are  desired),  to  the  hill.  After  the  plate  for  the  small 
kernels  is  found,  the  same  work  may  he  done  with  the  medium 
sized  kernels  and  then  with  the  large  size,  until  the  three  types 
of  kernels  have  planter  plates  which  fit  their  size  and  shape.  Then, 
when  this  seed  goes  into  the  fi^ld,  notwithstanding  its  varied  size, 
the  man  who  is  doing  the  work  can  feel  assured  that  each  hill  has 
the  number  of  kernels  in  it  which  he  desires. 

This  v.'Ork  done,  the  corn  is  ready  to  be  put  into  the  fi.eld  ;  or 
in  other  words,  is  ready  for  the  seed  bed  which  the  farmer  has  long 
before  this  planned  and  perhaps  made  ready.  A  study  of  the  seed 
bed,  of  course,  means  a  stud}'  of  the  soil. 

THE  SOIL. 
What  Is  It? 

There  is  nothing  which  Ave  have  more  to  consider  on  the  farm 
than  the  soil.       j\nd  yet,  there  is  no  subject  which  is  neglected  as 


CORN  8i 

much  by  those  who  are  dealing-  with  it  every  day  as  the  soil. 
Working"  with  it  all  of  the  day,  \\alking'  over  it  to  and  from  our 
work,  we  are  apt  to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  soil  is  a  matter  of 
our  inheritance  and  that  we  owe  nothing  to  it  directly  or  indirectlv. 
I'.ut  during  the  last  few  years  there  have  been  so  mau}^  things  de- 
veloped concerning  the  soil  and  the  use  to  which  it  may  be  put 
that  the  attitude  of  those  who  are  really  after  information  has 
changed  until  at  the  present  time  there  is  no  study  which  is  receiv- 
ing the  attention  of  more  men  in  all  walks  of  life  than  the  soil  pro- 
vided they  have  any  interest  at  all  in  the  work  of  agriculture. 

No  matter  from  what  part  of  the  earth  we  take  our  samples 
of  soil,  we  find  that  they  are  composed  of  many  pieces  of  various 
kinds  of  matter.  As  a  usual  thing,  the  soil  is  composed  of  sma]l 
fragments  of  rock  of  many  varieties.  Or  in  other  words,  the  soil 
is  made  up  of  fine  particles  of  inorganic  matter.  Then  of  course 
associated,  and  directly  in  contact,  with  these  fine  rock  particles 
there  is.  under  ordinary  conditions,  a  varying  amount  of  organic 
■matter,  ^^•hich,  of  course,  comes  from  the  breaking-  down  of  the 
■/egetable  and  animal  bodies.  It  then  becomes  plain  that  the  soil, 
which  is  so  common  to  us,  is  really  very  complex  and  is  made  up 
of  broken  down  rock  materials  interspersed  with  various  forms 
of  organic  matter  Avhich  make  soils  so  valuable  to  the  farming- 
world. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  soil  that  we  ordinarly  consider  along 
this  same  line;  the  one  is  the  surface  soil,  and  the  other  is  the  sub- 
soil. The  first  six  to  twelve  inches  of  these  fine"  rock  particles 
which  ha\'e  gone  to  produce  our  soils  we  usuall}'  consider  the  sur- 
face soil.  Just  below  this,  there  i'^  usually  a  sharp  distinction  of 
soils  and  this  loAver  soil  we  call  subsoil.  There  is  generally  a  sharp 
line  of  demarkation,  especially  in  the  matter  of  color,  between 
the  surface  soil  and  the  subsoil.  The  subsoil  is  the  part  v/hich  is 
unproductive  and  which  remains  so  until  its  texture  is  changed  to 
some  extent. 

In  this  complex  soil,  we  find  many  forms  of  living  matter 
which  show  that  our  soils,  as  King  would  say  it,  are  "scenes  of 
life  and  energy".  He  says  in  his  small  book  on  the  soil,  along  this 
line.-  that  "In  the  agricultural  science  it  should  be  observed  tliat 
the  most  important  use  of  the  soil   is  to  act  as  a  storehouse  for 


82  CORN 

water  for  the  use  of  the  plants;  and  that  the  productiveness  of  any 
soil,  is  determined  in  a  very  large  degree  by  the  amount  of  water 
it  can  hold,  by  the  manner  in  whicli  the  water  is  held,  and  by  the 
facilities  and  completeness  with  which  the  plant  growing  in  it  is 
able  to  withdraw  that  water  for  its  use  as  it  is  needed."  In  other 
words,  if  we  were  to  take  from  the  soil  the  water  which  it  contains 
it  would  be  impossible  to  grow  the  plants  because  there  would  be 
no  means  of  transporting  the  food  materials  so  necessary  in  plant 
growth.  "But  while  this  statement  is  true  in  the  fullest  sense, 
it  must  not  for  a  moment  be  thought  that  the  composition  of  the 
soil  is  not  an  important  factor  in  fixing  land  values  for  crop  pro- 
duction. The  importance  of  the  water  holding  power  grows  out 
of  the  fact  that  without  an  adequate  supply  of  water  neither  the 
other  food  constituents  which  the  soil  contains  nor  that  large  part 
which  is  diverted  from  the  air  can  be  procured  by  the  plant  nor 
transformed  or  assimilated  by  it.  Then  again  the  soil  is  a  won- 
derful laboratory  in  which  the  large  variety  of  the  earlier  micro- 
scopic forms  of  life  are  at  work  during  those  portions  of  the  year 
when  its  temperature  is  above  freezing,  breaking  down  dead  or- 
ganic matter  and  converting  it  into  those  forms  into  which  it 
becomes  available  for  plant  food.  And  the  farmer  should  never 
forget  that  the  crop  of  these  invisible  organisms  which  are  pro- 
duced each  year  in  his  soil  determines  in  no  small  degree  the 
magnitude  of  the  harvest  he  removes  from  the  ground  and  the  fit- 
ness of  that  ground  for  the  succeeding  crop.  Finally  the  soil  is 
a  means  for  transforming  sunshine  and  putting  it  into  a  form 
available  for  carrying  on  the  kinds  of  work  which  are  there  accom- 
plished;  and  the  manner  in  which  the  soil  is  tilled  and  the  v/a}^ 
it  is  fertilized  have  much  to  do  with  the  quantity  of  altered  sun- 
shine which  becomes  available  in  carrying  on  the  work." 

Hunt  says  in  speaking  of  the  soil  and  its  relation  to  corn 
production  that  "The  yield  of  maize  is  greatly  influenced  by  the 
character  of  the  soil,  perhaps  even  more  so^  than  any  other  cereal. 
Alluvial  river  bottom  soil  and  tile  drained  swamps  furnish  the  best 
conditions.  A  large  proportion  of  the  maize  crop  is  grown  on 
drift  soil,  but  not  all  portions  of  the  glaciated  land  are  equally  well 
adapted  to  this  crop.  In  the  Southern  States  the  red  or  chocolate- 
colored  upland  soils  with  red  clay  subsoils  are  better  for  maize  than 


CORN  83 

the  g"ray  soils  with  yeUow  clay  subsoils.  For  its  best  g-rowth, 
maize  requires  a  friable  soil  that  is  easily  drained  and  does  not 
bake  durino-  drouth.  While  the  waier  should  drain  freely  from  the 
the  surface,  a  water  table  within  three  feet  of  the  surface  is  not  oh- 
jectionable  and  probably  desirable.  The  free  moA^ement  of  water 
through  the  soil  in  all  directions,  especially  during  the  period  of 
fastest  growth,  is  essential  to  the  largest  yields." 

ROTATIONS. 

In  taking  care  of  these  soils  that  are  well  adapted  to  corn,  and 
in  maintaining  their  fertility  and  physical  condition,  it  is  necessary 
to  handle  them  with  what  we  call  a  rotation  of  crops.  A  rotation 
of  crops  might  be  defined  as  the  systematic  use  of  the  land  with 
farm  crops.  It  is  true  that  in  man\'  sections  there  seems  to  be  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  overlook  the  fact  that  it  is 
necessary,  in  all  the  highest  types  of  agriculture,  to  use  a  regular 
cropping  system.  And  as  a  result,  we  find  a  good  many  farms,  in 
such .  sections,  which  are  in  a  run  down  condition.  Such  farms 
may  be  found  in  any  state  in  the  union,  but  we  find  them  especi- 
ally in  those  states  where  the  fertility  of  the  soil  was  once  at  a 
very  high  standpoint.  Because  of  improper  handling  of  the  soil 
and  the  improper  use  of  manures,  or  the  use  of  none  at  all,  these 
lands  have  become  practically  worthless  from  the  agricultural  stand- 
point, and  many  of  them  are  selling  for  practically  nothing.  Some 
of  the  newer  states  where  agriculture  is  but  a  matter  of  a  few  years 
back  are  just  beginning  to  show  the  efifects  of  improper  growing 
of  crops. 


Reasons   for    Rotations. 

As  Ferguson  and  Lewis  say  in  their  "Elementary  Principles  of 
Agriculture",  "The  amount  of  mineral  food  which  a  crop  will  take 
from  the  soil  varies  with  the  kind  of  crop,  depending-  upon  how- 
much  of  the  crop  is  removed  by  the  yearly  harvest,  the  richness  of 
the  land,  and  many  seasonal  influences.  By  refering  to  chem- 
ical tables  it  wdl  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  removed  by 
grain  crops  is  less  than  the  amount  removed  by  crops  grown  for 


84  CORN 

their  roots.  It  will  be  noticed  also  that  grain  crops  remove  or  re- 
quire large  amounts  of  phosphorus;  root  crops,  potash;  and  hay 
crops,  much  nitrogen,  an  exception  being  made  for  legumes  as 
alfalfa,  clover,  cow  peas  when  grown  for  hay  crops.  Some  legume 
crop  should  be  included  in  any  system  of  rotation." 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  if  we  would  grow  au}^  certain 
kind  of  crop  for  an  indefinite  period  or  without  change  of  land, 
we  would  be  drawing  upon  a  large  supply  of  one  of  the  plant  foods 
which  are  apt  to  be  lacking  in  the  soil.  To  make  this  a  little  clearer, 
we  find  from  our  study  of  the  soil  that  there  are  three  elements, 
namely  potash,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen,  which  all  plants  need 
and  which  are  apt  to  be  lacking  in  some  soils.  Now-,  if  some 
grain  crop  is  to  be  raised  on  the  land  wdiich  draws  for  example 
heavily  upon  phosphorus,  and  this  is  followed  the  next  year  by 
another  grain  crop  which  draws  heavily  upon  the  phosphorus,  and 
this  is  followed  year  in  and  year  out,  the  phosphorus  will  soon  turn 
up  lacking  in  the  soil.  But  if  some  crop  is  put  on  the  land  which 
draws  perhaps  heavily  on  nitrogen,  as  the  hay  crops  do,  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  land  will  be  held  more  nearly  uniform.  In  other  words, 
we  do  not  rob  the  land  completely  of  any  one  element;  for  if  we 
were  to  leave  all  of  the  nitrogen  and  potash  in  the  soil  and  have  the 
phosphorus  removed,  we  would  still  be  unable  to  grow^  crops  suc- 
cessfully. .  ~ 

In  continuing  the  article  O'f  rotation  of  crops  which  Avas  quoted 
above,  the  authors  say,  "It  is  desirable  to  arrange  the  rotation  _^o 
that  the  same  land  does  not  have  the  same  crop  twice  in  succession. 
In  arranging  the  crop,  it  is  important  to  consider  the  order  in  which 
the  crops  should  follow^  each  other.  Plants  with  shalloAA-  roots 
should  lollow  plants  with  deep  feeding  roots..  Non-cultivated 
crops,  like  grain-:,  should  follow  cultivated  crops,  because  the  land 
will  be  better  in  tilth.  As  regards  the  predominating  mineral 
foods,  it  is  better  to  let  those  crops  requiring  a  large  amount  of 
nitrogen  follow  potash  liking  crops,  or  still  better  legumes  because 
they  will  leave  additional  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  wdiich 
will  be  very  beneficial  to  the  grain,  but  not  so  necessar}-  to  the 

others Except  in  arid  regions,  it  is  best  to  keep 

the  land  constantly  occupied  by  some  crop.     That  not  only  keeps 
the  land  continuallv  earning  something,  but  it  is  best  for  the  land. 


CORN 


85 


o 


86  CORN 

A  field  that  is  bare  or  fallow  loses  more  by  washing  and  leeching 
than  land  occupied  by  plants.  It  is  often  possible  to  grow  a  quick 
maturing  crop  after  the  principal  crops  have  been  harvested ;  for 
example,  June  corn  after  potatoes  or  small  grain,  cow  peas  after 
corn. 

"In  planning  a  rotation  or  selecting  a  cover  crop,  it  is  neses- 
sary   to    consider    wdiat    may   be     successfully    sold    or    used    to"^ 
advantage.     This  will  depend  upon  the  markets  and  the  farmer's 
facilities  for  keeping  and  feeding  certain  kinds  of  crops."  "^ 

In  summing  up,  it  can  be  said  that  when  the  farmer  is  selecting 
crops  to  fit  into  a  rotation,  the  crops  to  be  used  will  be  selected 
depending  upon  the  following  things :  first,  upon  what  food  the 
plant  lives  chiefly;  second,  at  what  depth  the  plant  grows  in  the 
soil ;  third,  at  what  season  in  the  year  a  crop  is  needed ;  fourth, 
whether  the  crop  is  intended  to  be  used  upon  the  farm  or  mar- 
keted ;  fifth,  the  character  of  the  soil  and  climate ;  sixth,  the 
disposition  of  the  farmer  in  doing  the  work.  This  last  point  is 
one  upon  which  a  great  deal  depends.  The  fact  that  in  our  cbrn 
belt  states  we  have  corn  following  oats  and  oats  following  corn 
continually  year  in  and  year  out  has  been  due  to  the  disposition  of 
the  farmer  rather  than  to  the  needs  of  his  farm,  or  of  the  state.  It 
is  likewise  recognized  that  a  rotation  is  not  a  rotation  in  the  strict- 
est c-ense  of  '.he  word  unless  there  is  a  legume  in  it.  And  so  we 
find  the  soils  of  a  good  many  of  our  so-called  high  class  farms  in 
rather  a  poor  condition  because  of  the  fact  that  the  crops  have  not 
been  carefully  selected. 

Now,  the  question  naturally  arises,  "What  would  be  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  following  an  up-to-date  method  of 
rotation?" 

Benefits  of  Rotation. 

First,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  maintained.  By  this  we  mean 
that  the  soil  is  not  depleted  rapidly  in  any  one  direction.  Of 
course  all  plants  acting  upon  the  soil  and  drawing  upon  plant  food 
are  taking  plant  food  from  the  soil  and  reducing  the  fertility,  but 
a  rotation  reduces  that  fertility  uniformly  if  there  is  any  advant- 
ao-e  in  that. 


CORN  .  87 

Second,  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  improved.  By  this 
we  mean  the  "workability"  of  the  soil.  Since  the  crops  in  the 
rotation  work  at  different  depths,  and  the  roots  are  of  different 
shapes  we  find  the  soil  to  be  more  friable  than  if  one  crop  is  con- 
stantly grown  upon  the  land  so  that  there  is  no  special  cultivation 
other  than  the  plowing. 

Third,  farm  labor  is  distributed  over  various  seasons  of  the 
year.  Not  all  of  the  crops  will  need  be  taken  care  of  at  the  same 
time  of  the  year  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  entire  crop,  for  ex- 
ample, were  wheat.  This  means  a  great  deal  from  the  farm 
management  standpoint. 

Fourth,  much  better  distribution  of  the  crops  is  provided, 
partly  because  the  labor  has  been  distributed  through  the  season. 

Fifth,  the  manuring  of  the  land  is  facilitated.  For  example, 
we  know  that  it  is  a  bad  practice  to  apply  much  manure  directly 
to  small  grains,  but  bring  in  a  meadow  or  some  other  form  of 
crop  to  which  a  fertilizer  may  be  applied  and  we  can  maintain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  without  injuring  the  crops. 

Sixth,  the  land  will  be  rid  of  bothersome  weeds-  This  is  very 
often  done  by  the  cultivated  crop  in  the  rotation  and  it  should  be 
understood  that  every  rotation  should  have  a  cultivated  crop  in  it 
as  well  as  a  legume ;  whereas,  if  wheat  or  some  other  crop  were 
to  be  raised  continually  on  the  land,  it  would  mean  a  continual 
production  of  weeds  that  would  take  the  entire  land  or  such  an 
extent  of  it  that  returns  would  be  very  unprofitable. 

Seventh,  insects  and  fungous  diseases  are  exterminated.  An- 
fLually  there  is  a  great  loss  in  the  United  States  in  all  crops  from 
these  two  sources.  Insects  and  fungous  diseases  have  a  tendency 
to  live  over  from  year  to  year  on  the  same  crop.  Rotation  of  crops, 
or  the  changing  of  the  land  in  its  cropping  system,  prevents  any 
such  conditon  as  this  and  as  a  result  checks  very  materially  any 
progress  which  these  pests  have  made. 


What  is  a  Good  Rotation? 

There  are  so  many  things,  as  the  student  will  by  this  time 
notice,  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  if  a  rotation  is  to 


88  CORN 

be  of  any  merit,  that  the  beginner  in  such  work  may  be  confused. 
It  would  be  too  much  of  a  task  to  attempt  at  this  time  to  give 
rotations  that  would  suit  all  localities  in  the  country,  but  a  simple 
one  which  is  common  in  a  section  of  the  corn  belt  will  illustrate 
the  methods  at  hand,  and  if  the  student  wishes  to  go  farther,  he 
can  write  to  his  experiment  station  and  get  rotations  which  will 
fit  his  conditions.  The  rotation  which  is  so  common  in  the  corn 
belt  is  simply  corn,  oats,  and  clover.  We  find  several  things  in 
this  rotation  which  are  to  be  commended.  In  the  first  place,  it 
is  short,  only  three  years  in  length.  In  the  second  place,  it  con- 
tains a  cultivated  crop,  in  the  corn  crop.  In  the  next  place,  it 
contains  a  legume,  in  the  form  of  clover.  Now,  if  ordinary  barn- 
vard  manure  is  applied  once  during  this  rotation,  on  the  average 
corn  belt  soils  there  should  be  no  reason  for  the  depletion  of  the 
fertilitv.  This,  of  course,  holds  true  only  for  those  lands  where  the 
farm  practices  begin  with  the  virgin  fertility.  It  might  be  well  for 
the  student  at  this  time  to  ascertain  what  rotations  are  best  for 
his  conditions  of  farming. 


THE  SEED  IN  ITS  HOME. 

After  the  seed  has  been  prepared  as  the  student  has  already 
read,  and  the  soil  is  put  in  prime  condition,  it  is  necessary  to  take  up 
the  matter  of  preparing  the  immediate  seed  bed  for  the  corn  crop 
which,  as  we  are  understanding  at  this  time,  is  the  cultivated  crop 
of  the  rotation. 

It  is  necessary  to  consider  the  points,  in  the  first  place,  which 
are  required  for  the  germination  of  a  kernel  of  corn.  If  we  de- 
termine that  accuratly,  we  will  be  able  to  tell  why  we  follow 
certain  practices  with  our  corn  crop.  The  conditions  of  germi- 
nation are:  first,  vitality;  second,  moisture;  third,  proper  temper- 
ature ;  and  fourth,  oxygen.  If  any  one  of  these  four  factors  are 
absent,  the  seed  will  either  germinate  very  poorly,  or  not  at  all. 
The  fact  that  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  is  almost  an  impossible 
matter  accounts  for  the  fact  that  corn  will  sometimes  germinate 
when  it  is  under  water.  The  important  part  w^hich  we  will  note 
later,  and  which  has  already  been  spoken  of,  is  that,  if  moisture  is 
excluded  from  stored  seeds,  germination  is  prevented. 


CORN  89 

Vitality. 

There  is  just  one  part  of  the  kernel  of  corn  which  is  living, 
ov.d  that  is  the  germ.  If  the  germ  is  kept  alive,  the  seed  will  grow. 
But  the  iirst  important  factor  is  to  have  the  ability,  within  the 
seed,  to  germinate  if  we  expect  to  get  any  growth  at  all. 

The  question  naturally  arises  here,  perhaps,  as  to  how  long 
corn  may  be  held  under  proper  storage  and  still  retain  its  vitality. 
Experiments  have  shown  in  several  instances  that  corn  which  has 
been  kept  for  six  or  eight  years  under  proper  conditions  will  still 
grow  with  a  high  percentage  of  germination.  But  as  a  rule, 
three  or  four  years'  old  corn  has  passed  its  prime  stage. 


Moisture. 

Moisture  is  necessary  for  germination  because  in  the  process 
of  germination  this  is  the  first  thing  that  takes  place ;  namely,  the 
seed  swells  because  of  the  water  which  enters  it.  Omit  this 
step  and  nothing  else  follows.  Tn  other  words,  we  might  say  that 
the  entrance  of  water  into  the  kernel  of  corn  awakens  the  dormant 
life  within  the  germ  and  starts  the  small  plant  on  its  existence. 
It  permits  the  root  to  break  through  the  outside  hull  and  to  com- 
mence growing  into  the  ground  ;  and  the  plumule  to  break  through 
the  hull  and  begin  going  up  towards  the  light. 


Proper  Temperature. 

But  it  must  be  remembered  that  even  though  we  have  water 
present  and  the  temperature  is  not  correct,  the  water  will  not  en- 
ter the  seed  and  plumule  and  radicle  will  not  be  awakened  from 
their  sleep.  Many  tests  have  been  made  to  ascertain  at  what 
temperature  the  seed  will  germinate.  The  highest  temperature 
at  which  seed  will  germinate  is  called  the  maximum.  The  mini- 
mum temperature  is  the  lowest  at  which  the  seed  will  germinate ; 
and  to  induce  the  best  temperature,  the  word  "optimum"  is  used. 
\\'ith  corn,  it  is  found  that  the  minimum  temperature  for  germ- 
ination is  forty  degrees;  the  maximum  temperature  is  115  degrees; 


90  CORN 

and  the  optimum  temperature  is  ninety-three  degrees.  Of  course, 
in  the  process  of  germination  there  is  a  little  heat  given  off  from 
the  seed  itself,  but  surrounded  by  so  much  soil  of  a  cooler  tem- 
perature, the  kernel  naturally  loses  this  heat  rapidly.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  we  desire  a  fairly  warm  soil  in  the  spring  before 
we  plant  our  corn. 


Oxygen, 

This  is  the  least  important  item  because  it  is  the  one  which  is 
the  most  easily  supplied.  However,  the  amount  which  is  found 
in  the  seed  itself  is  not  sufficient  to  allow  it  to  germinate  well  and 
so  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  soil  loose  so  that  the  air  can  get  to 
the  seed  at  the  time  when  it  is  needed.  One  writer  suggests  that, 
"The  unhealthy  appearance  of  corn  on  poorly  drained  soil  is  usuall}^ 
considered  to  be  due  to  too  much  water  when  it  is  really  the  lack 
of  oxygen.  AVhen  corn  which  has  been  planted  very  deeply  is 
slow  in  germinating  in  the  spring,  especially  when  continual  rains 
come  on,  it  is  due  largely  to  a  reduction  of  temperature  and  the 
exclusion  of  oxygen-" 


Tirne    Required    for    Germination. 

As  will  be  remembered  from  the  work  with  the  germination 
box,  the  time  required  for  germination  is  about  six  or  eight  days. 
If  the  ordinary  germination  box  is  left  for  ten  days,  results  will  be 
even  better ;  but  as  the  corn  goes  into  the  ground,  in  the  spring, 
under  the  weather  conditions,  ten  days  to  two  weeks  will  be  re- 
quired for  the  germination  of  the  seed. 


PLOWING. 

Time  To  Plow. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  above  conditions  in  mind  in 
all  of  the  work  that  is  done  on  the  soil.  The  aim  should  be  to 
supply  the  factors  necessary  for  good  germination  and  good 
growth  so  that  the  seed  and  the  plant  will  not  be  required  to  live 


CORN  91 

under  unfavorable  conditions.  The  time  to  plow,  of  course,  will 
be  regulated  a  great  deal  by  the  crops  that  have  been  grown  upon 
the  land  previously.  The  field  which  will  'be  selected  for  corn 
will  be  one  where  some  legume  has  been  growing  the  year  before, 
or,  at  least,  that  ought  to  be  true.  In  other  words,  the  field  will 
be  a  part  of  a  regular  rotation.  AVhile  it  is  true  every  year  that 
corn  is  produced  successfully  on  sod  land,  the  farmer  must  not 
take  for  granted  the  idea  that  that  soil  is  especially  adapted  for 
corn.  By  sod  land  we  mean  the  native  sod.  As  a  result  of  this 
assumption,  corn  is  very  often  put  on  the  same  land  tw^ice.  That 
is,  the  second  year's  crop  is  on  the  second  year  after  sod  and  a 
conspicuous  failure  usually  results.  Corn  can  not  be  recom- 
mended on  other  than  well  worked  land,  and,  of  course,  the  best 
crop  to  precede  it  is  the  legume-  The  legume  (clover,  alfalfa,  etc.) 
leaves,  the  soil  in  a  loose,  mellow  condition  and  if  some  of  it  is 
turned  under  a  splendid  supply  of  available  nitrogen  is  made 
ready.  If  this  is  turned  under  early  in  the  fall,  the  action  of  the 
winter  weather  on  the  soil  will  make  available  large  amounts  of 
plant,  food  and  the  time  between  the  fall  plowing  and  the  spring- 
planting  w^ill  afford  a  sufficient  period  for  the  legume  to  decay. 

Xow%  it  is  recbghized  that  under  some  conditions  fall  plow^ing 
can  not  be  recommended ;  but  where  corn  is  raised  to  any  extent 
the  most  sucessful  results  are  secured  in  this  way.  As  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  414  says,  "Fall  plowing  can  not  be  recommended  on 
all  soils  and  localities,  but  should  be  more  generally  practiced  than 
at  present.  If  a  cover  crop  or  sod  is  turned  under  in  the  autumn, 
decomposition  will  increase  the  amount  of  plant  food  available  for 
the  crop  next  summer.  This  is  true  to  some  extent  even  though  the 
sod  is  not  turned  under,  inasmuch  as  the  simple  loosening  of  the  soil 
admits  atmospheric  ox3^gen  and  increases  chemical  action  on  vege- 
table and  mineral  matter.  Fall  and  winter  plowing  is  one  of  the 
'best  methods  of  combating  grub  worms,  cut  worms,  and  corn 
root  worms  which  are  often  destructive  to  corn.  Because  the  sur- 
face of  ground  plowed  in  the  fall  is  drier  at  planting  time,  in  tlie 
spring,  than  that  ground  not  so  treated,  it  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  there  is  less  moisture  in  the  fall  plowed  ground.  The 
fall  plowing  has  enabled  the  rain  fall  better  to  penetrate  the  sub- 
soil   thus  relievine  the  surface  of  its  excess  of  moisture.     In  the 


92  CORN 

spring,  fall  plowed  fields  usually  contain  much  more  moisture,  bur 
at  the  same  time  have  a  drier  surface  than  fields  which  remain 
unplowed  until  spring. 

"In  sections  where  there  is  much  rain  during  the  winter,  it  is 
better  not  to  harrow  the  fall  plowed  land  in  the  autumn.  This 
is  especially  true  of  fine  clay  soils  that  run  together  and  pack 
readily. 

"In  comparative  tests  of  fall  and  spring  plowing  preceding 
a  dry  summer,  the  fall  plowed  fields  have  generally  yielded  better. 
The  same  is  true  of  subsoiling. 

"Deep  spring  plowing  and  spring  subsoiling  are  likely  to  re- 
sult in  diminished  crops,  especially  if  done  after  the  spring  rains. 
The  loosening  of  the  soil  to  greater  depths  admits  air  and  facilitates 
the  evaporation  of  soil  moisture.  It  also'  interrupts  the  capillarity 
so  that  moisture  is  not  as  readily  drawn  from  the  greater  depths 
and  during  a  dry  summer  there  is  not  enough  available  moisture  to 
support  a  good  crop."  There  is  very  little  if  any  objection  to  fall 
plowing  where  the  system  of  farming  or  rotations  is  correct.  Too 
often,  when  objections  co^me,  they  arise  with  those  men  who  are 
farming  carelessly  or  who  have  no  respect  for  the  fertility  of  the 
soil. 


The   Depth   of   Plowing. 

Here  is  one  point  where  a  great  many  errors  are  made.  The 
farmer  attempts  to  save  time  and  labor  by  plowing  in  a  shallow, 
slip-shod  manner.  It  is  true  that  if  the  plowing  is  done  at  a 
shallow  depth,  there  is  not  the  draft  on  the  horses  that  there  would 
be  otherwise.  Of  course  it  is  known  that  the  best  depth  to  plow 
for  corn  will  vary  with  the  soil,  the  climate,  the  season,  and  with 
the  general  practices  on  the  farm.  But  as  rule,  after  all  the  com- 
mon methods  are  followed,  it  seems  plain  that  a  depth  of  about  six 
inches  is  the  best  for  the  most  of  our  corn  soils.  In  plowing,  it 
is  alwaj^s  well,  however,  to  remember  that  the  lanc|  realty  ought 
not  to  be  plowed  at  the  same  depth  each  year  since  it  is  advisable 
to  have  the  soil  mixed  well.  It  often  seems  advisable  to  plow 
just  a  little  deeper  each  year  in  order  to  bring  up   some  of  the 


CORN  93 

elements  from  the  subsoil  to  the  surface  that  these  elements  may 
become  available  for  plant  growth.  Of  course  it  is  needless  to  say 
that  the  plow  should  be  adjusted  so  that  it  will  turn  all  of  the  soil 
and  leave  all  of  the  surface  smooth. 

If  spring  plowing  is  followed,  the  disc  and  the  harrow  ought 
to  be  thrown  on  the  land  as  soon  as  the  plowing  is  done.  With 
fall  plowing,  however,  the  weather  breaks  the  particles  and  makes 
the  soil  easily  worked. 

Comparing  corn  with  the  other  cereals,  it  is  easily  recognized 
that  a  greater  depth  is  required  in  the  plowing  than  would  be 
true  with  oats,  wheat,  barley,  or  rye. 


After  Plowing. 

After  the  land  is  plowed  and  the  soil  is  ready  to  be  worked, 
the  disc  will  be  one  of  the  most  useful  implements  that  the  farmer 
will  use.  As  has  been  said,  it  will  not  be  necessary  tO'  disc  the 
fall  plowed  ground  until  spring;  but  as  soon  as  spring  opens  and 
a  team  can  go  upon  the  field,  the  disc  ought  to  be  used  and  the 
seed  bed  ought  to  be  prepared  carefully.  If  spring  plowing  has 
been  practiced,  it  is  just  as  essential,  if  not  more  so,  that  the 
cultivation  be  thorough.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  plowing  and 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  one  half  of  the  crop ;  and  if  we  con- 
sider that  the  seed  and  plant  could  do  nothing  without  a  properly 
prepared  seed  bed,  we  can  believe  that  statement  easily. 


PLANTING. 

The  Depth  to  Plant. 

There  is  always  a  great  deal  of  discussion  on  this  point,  if 
we  take  for  granted  that  the  field  has  been  prepared  in  the  very 
be^t  way,  using  the  disc,  the  drag,  the  roller,  and  the  spike  tooth 
harrow,  the  depth  of  planting  comes  in  as  an  important  consider- 
ation and  one  which  the  experiment  stations  of  the  United  States 
have  attempted  to  decide  for  a  good  many  years.  Some  work 
done  at  Ohio  State  University  would  indicate  something  of  the 
difference    between    deep    and    shallow    planting.     An    experiment 


94  CORN 

performed  at  that  place  showed  that  planting  one  inch  deep  yielded 
57.9 bushels;  two  inches  deep,  51.2  bushels;  three  inches  deep,  46-8 
bushels.  Several  seasons  favored  the  shallow  planting.  Working 
upon  the  black  soils  of  Illinois,  some  experiments  performed  by 
the  Illinois  Station  point  toward  the  same  fact.  Their  results  were 
as  follows :  one  inch  deep,  78  bushels ;  two  inches  deep,  72  bushels ; 
three  inches  deep,  65  bushels ;  four  inches  deep,  69  bushels ;  five 
inches  deep,  61  bushels ;  six  inches  deep,  60  bushels.  Work  done 
at  other  stations  seems  to  indicate  that  the  shallow  planting  has  the 
advantage  over  the  deep  planting.  It  is  thought  that  the  reason 
for  this  reduced  yield  is  not  the  fact  that  the  corn  does  not  produce 
vigorous  ears,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  stand  is  reduced  because 
of  the  depth  to  which  the  kernels  are  placed.  If,  however,  it  is 
planned  tO'  do  any  cultivating  in  the  field  after  the  corn  is  planted 
and  before  it  is  up,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  the  seed  perhaps  a 
little  deeper  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  A.  false  notion 
seems  to  prevail  in  a  good  many  sections  to  the  effect  that  the 
deeper  Ave  put  the  seed  the  deeper  the  roots  will  be.  But  this 
notion  is  easily  proven  wrong  by  field  work ;  for  the  depth  of  the 
roots  is  not  materiall}^  affected  by  the  depth  to  which  the  seed  is 
placed  in  the  soil.  ''^''^^^^ 


Hills  or  Drills. 

There  are  very  few  men  nowadays  who  plant  their  corn  by 
hand.  It  is  true  there  are  some  in  the  more  intensive  district:,, 
but  their  methods  give  one  more  chance  for  a  loss  financially.  It 
would  be  far  better  if  they  would  practice  some  of  the  more  exten- 
sive plans.  But  where  machinery  is  used  to  a  great  extent,  the 
ordinary  planter  offers  two  ways  of  putting  the  crop  into  the 
ground.  The  first  by  drilling,  the  second  by  check-rowing.  Drill- 
ing, of  course,  m.eans  putting  the  seed  in  the  ground  at  short 
intervals  in  the  row,  while  check  rowing  places  the  corn  into  the 
ground  at  regular  intervals.  The  question  always  arises,  at  an 
institute  where  the  subject  before  the  meeting  is  corn,  whether 
hills  or  drills  produce  the  greater  yield.  Experiment  after  experi- 
ment has  been  carried  on  along  this  line,  all  with  the  same  result ; 


CORN  95 

namely,  that  there  seems  to  be  no  difference  in  favor  of  either 
method.  The  fact  that  the  check-rowing  allows  the  ground  to  be 
cultivated  in  two  directions  is  a  very  large  point  in  favor  of  that 
method.  This  of  course,  considers  the  crop  as  raised  for  the  ear 
itself.  If  raised  for  the  fodder,  it  may  be  advisable  to  plant  the 
seed  more  closely  together  in  order  to  bring  about  a  finer  struct- 
ure in  the  fodder  itself. 


Listing. 

In  some  sections  where  there  is  not  a  great  deal  of  rainfall 
it  is  found  best  to  plant  the  corn  by  listing.  By  listing  we  mean 
planting  the  corn  in  a  furrow. 

As  a  usual  thing,  it  is  drilled  in;  but  whether  it  is  drilled 
or  planted  in  hills  the  plow  precedes  the  planter  part  proper,  making 
a  furrow  into  which  the  kernels  may  be  dropped.  This  places  the 
kernels  down  to  a  depth  where  the  moisture  is,  perhaps,  more  in 
abundance.  As  the  grains  germinate,  they  come  up  to  the  surface 
of  the  bottom  part  of  the  furrow  and  to  cultivate  the  field  an  im- 
plement which  will  prevent  the  covering  of  the  plants,  and  yet 
which  will  stir  the  soil,  is  used.  There  are  various  devices  to 
accomplish  this  object.  One  of  them  inverts  a  trough  over  the 
ridge  and,  of  course,  when  the  soil  is  stirred  it  falls  down  on  the 
sides  of  the  trough  rather  than  on  the  corn  itself,  and  yet  the 
ground  is  stirred  and  the  weeds  covered.  Those  men  who  are 
definitely  interested  in  this  type  of  cultivation  claim  that  the  weeds 
may  be  freed  from  the  land  with  much  more  ease  than  if  corn 
plants  are  surface  set.  The  fact  that  the  weeds  are  much  more 
easily  eradicated  in  this  way  may  also  be  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  less  moisture  where  the  practice  of  listing  is  in 
voarue. 


96  CORN 

Time  of  Planting. 

The  time  of  planting  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  corn  that  is 
used,  the  variety  that  is  planted,  the  climate  conditions  under 
which  it  is  to  be  grown,  the  soil,  the  implements  used,  how  well 
the  seed  bed  is  prepared,  and  perhaps  other  conditions  which  are 
local.  But  as  a  general  rule  in  the  sections  of  the  corn  belt  itself, 
tlie  corn  is  put  into  the  ground  about  the  tenth  of  May.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  if  the  seed  bed  is  well  prepared  and  the  soil 
well  drained  the  corn  may  be  put  into  the  ground  earlier  and  get 
good  results.  But  the  advice  is  generally  given,  and  correctly  so, 
by  those  whO'  have  had  a  great  deal  of  experience,  that  corn  put 
in  a  cold  seed  bed  never  does  v.^ell.  So  the  time  of  planting  will 
be  regulated  by  the  conditions  under  which  the  farmer  is  working 
rather  than  by  an}-  set  date.  If  he  holds  in  mind  the  principles 
required  for  germination  there  will  be  no  mistake  on  his  part. 


The  Rate  of  Seeding. 

Under  this  subject  would  really  come  the  distance  between 
hills  or  the  distance  between  stalks  in  drilling  and  a  great  deal 
has  been  done  along  this  line  by  almost  every  experiment  station  in 
the  United  States.  Work  which  has  been  done  at  these  stations  in 
general,  is  correct  for  the  farms  of  the  state  in  which  the  work  was 
done.  But  it  has  been  found  that  the  work  of  the  experiment 
statioiis  is  i:ot  always  reliable  for  all  parts  of  the  state;  so  where 
f  1  uS  have  been  made  available  in  the  last  few  years,  the  various 
statii  ns  have  been  establishing  sub-stations  over  the  territory 
which  they  control.  In  this  way  the  various  conditions  in  the 
different  localities  are  studied  in  a  definite  way- 

The  number  of  stalks  to  the  hill  comes  in  under  this  subject 
also.  The  ordinar)^  distance  between  hills  is  about  three  and  one- 
half  feet  each  way.  The  number  of  stalks  per  hill  in  most  of  the 
corn  growing  sections  is  considered  as  three.  That  is  the  best 
results  can  be  obtained  if  three  stalks  are  in  each  hill.  But  just 
recently  experiments  with  some  of  the  smaller  varieties  of  corn 


CORN  97 

lead  us  to  believe  that  four  stalks,  and  even  five,  are  desirable  under 
these  conditions  where  the  hills  are  three  and  one-half  feet  apart. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  smaller  plants  and  the  smaller 
g-rain  produced  draws  less  heavily  upon  the  soil  fertility  than  do 
the  ranker  growing  varieties  of  some  of  the  southern  corn  growing 
sections.  If  corn  is  planted  the  ordinary  distance  apart  and  only 
one  stock  is  grown  in  a  hill  and  every  stock  produced  an  ear  weigh- 
ing- O'ue  pound,  the  yield  of  an  acre  would  be  more  than  forty-five 
bushels.  That  would  make  two  stalks  in  the  hill  produce  )iinetv 
bushels,  and  three  stalks,  135  bushels  per  acre. 

This  brings  up  a  large  question,  that  of  whether  barren  stalks 
in  the  field  are  desirable  or  not.  For  it  must  be  realized  that,  if 
135  'bushels  could  be  raised  to  the  acre  with  a  perfect  stand  and 
each  stalk  producing  a  w^ell  developed  ear,  our  present  yield  indi- 
cates that  we  are  not  producing  stalks  and  ears  as  theory  would  say 
we  ought  to  do.  So  there  must  be  some  barren  stalks  in  the  field 
We  mean  by  barren  stalks  those  which  do  not  produce  an  ear 
Avorth  harvesting  and  there  will  be  places  where  the  seed  has  not 
germinated  well,  even  with  all  our  care  in  producing  a  good  stand. 
But  if  we  can  come  as  near  to  the  ideal  as  possible,  we  will  get  our 
maximum  yields,  and  for  the  most  of  our  corn  belt  soils  the  attempt 
should  be  to  get  three  stalks  to  the  hill  about  three  and  one-half 
feet  each  way.  Or  if  drilling  is  practiced,  the  stalks  should  be 
twelve  to   fourteen   inches   apart. 


Weeds. 

How  to  control  weeds  is  one  of  the  problems  of  the  farmer. 
We  usually  include  under  the  term  weeds  any  plants,  which  grow 
on  the  soil,  and  which  are  not  desired.  There  are  so  many  thai 
grow  in  corn  fields  that  an  attempt  to  list  them  in  this  place  would 
be  entirely  out  of  order.  The  most  of  them  can  be  controlled  by 
ordinary  cultivation,  but  many  times  it  takes  special  care  other  than 
ordinary  cultivation,  as  with  the  quack  grass  or  Canada  Thistle. 
Weeds   have   a   bad   effect   upon   the   land.     Some    weeds   give   off 


98  CORN 

substances  which  are  to  a  slight  extent  poisonous  to  the  soil,  but 
this  evil  effect  is  by  no  means  commensurate  with  the  fact  that 
the  weeds  take  plant  food  and  moisture  from  the  soil  when  the 
corn  plants  ought  to  be  having-  it. 


MANURES. 

The  great  problem  of  how  to  use  manures  is  confronting  many 
farmers  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States,  and  broadcast  ad- 
vice can  only  be  given  in  a  general  and  vague  way,  for  so  many  of 
the  conditions  which  affect  one  locality  do  not  affect  another.  There 
is  one  feature,  however,  which  will  apply  to  the  soils  and  that  is 
that  barnyard  manure  is  good  for  the  land.  Many  of  the  old  Eng- 
lish writers  on  agriculture  after  long  discussions  upon  commercial 
fertilizers  came  dow^n  to  this  plain  statement :  Barn  yard  manure 
furnishes  the  elements  which  are  necessary  for  plant  growth  to 
some  extent  and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  organic  matter  for  the 
soil  which  will  improve  the  physical  condition  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent. Many  of  the  commercial  fertilizers,  while  supplying  the 
plant  foods,  do  not  add  any  organic  matter  to  the  soil ;  and  as  a 
result  we  have  what  is  known  as  "baking"  of  the  soil.  The  evil 
results  coming  from  the  use  of  manures  are  not  due  to  the  ferti- 
lizer wdiich  was  used  but  to  the  manner  in  which  it  was  applied 
to  the  soil.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  plant  is  to  be  fed 
just  the  same  as  the  animal  if  the  plant  is  to  live  and  do  well. 

In  speaking  along  this  line  of  feeding  the  plant,  "The  Book  of 
Corn"  published  by  the  Orange  Judd  Company  says:  "Large 
quantities  of  fertilizer  are  not  recommended  for  corn  under  aver- 
age conditions.  An  application  of  a  medium  amount  will  be  more 
likely  to  result  in  a  profit-  Where  farm  manure  is  not  available 
and  entire  dependence  is  placed  upon  purchased  supplies  or  where 
raw^  ground  instead  of  sod  is  used,  mixtures  containing  large 
proportions  of  nitrogen  and  heavier  applications  are  required.  A 
brand  containing  nitrogen  four  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  (available) 
eight   per  cent,  and  potash   eight  per  cent,  applied  at  the  rate  of 


CORN  99 

300  ])Oiinds  per  acre  will  supply  the  needed  constituents  in  good 
forms  and  proportions.  Part  of  this  application  may  be  made 
Ivroadcast  and  harrowed  in;  the  remainder,  say  one-half,  applied  in 
the  diill  at  the  time  of  planting.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply  the 
materials  broadcast  wherever  possible;  and  in  lieu  of  the  recom- 
n^cndali-^ns  made,  350  pounds  per  acre  of  mixture  No.  1  may  be 
used  applied  broadcast  in  connection  with  a  compost  applied  in 
the  hill.  (Mixiure  No.  1: — Ground  Bone,  250  pounds;  Acid  Phos- 
pl^ate.  500  pounds;  Muriate  of  Potash,  250  pounds.)  This  would 
be  particuiarly  advantageous  in  heavy  clay  soils  as  it  is  desirable, 
there,  to  have  manures  well  distributed  and  to  encourage  the  earh"- 
growth  of  the  corn  ]^y  .-ubstances  high  in  organic  inatter  applied 
in  the  hill.  This  compost  may  be  made  up  largely  of  fine  cow  or 
horse  manure,  fortified  by  the  addition  of  ground  fish,  dried  bone 
or  cotton  seed  meal.  The  addition  of  300  pounds  of  dried  bone  or 
500  pounds  of  ground  fish  or  cotton  seed  meal  to  a  ton  of  dry 
composted  manure  would  be  excellent  for  this  purpose  and  make  a 
relatively  cheap  compost.  In  the  southern  states  there  is  probably 
no  better  and  cheaper,  and  therefore  no  more  satisfactory  form 
of  organic  nitrogen,  all  things  considered,  than  cotton  seed  meal. 
And  in  Georgia  particularl}^  Avhere  a  careful  study  of  the  matter 
has  been  made,  the  following  formula  has  been  recommended  for 
well  improved  upland  soil  or  bottom  lands : — Cotton  Seed  meal, 
870  pounds ;  Acid  Phosphate,  1000  pounds ;  Muriate  of  Potash,  30 
pounds ;  or  for  wornout  upland  soils : — Cotton  Seed  meal,  1000 
pounds;  Acid  Phosphate,  1250  pounds;  Muriate  of  Potash,  30 
pounds.  The  chief  need  of  these  soils  is  more  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid.  An  application  of  250  to  400  pounds  per  acre  has 
been  found  to  be  the  most  economical.  This  recommendation  will 
probably  apply  to  the  uplands  and  bottom  lands  of  the  Southern 
Coast  States ;  whereas  for  the  sandy  lands,  a  large  proportion  of 
potash  is  needed.  In  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  potash  has  been 
shown  to  be  a  very  important  ingredient  in  fertilizers  for  corn." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  writers  of  this  paragraph  lay  a  great 
deal  of  emphasis  on  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  There  is  no 
reason  for  buying  nitrogen  when  the  air  contains  so  much  and  the 
legumes  have  the  ability  to  take  that  nitrogen  and  place  it  in  the 
soil  for  use.      If  the  phosphoric  acid  can  be  obtained  in  the  form  of 


lOO  CORN 

ground  raw  rock,  it  will  be  much  better  for  the  soil  and  will  last 
much  long-er  than  the  strict  acid  phosphate  itself. 


CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  corn  determines  whether  the  corn  yields 
well  or  not.  Of  course  it  is  not  the  only  determining  fact,  but  if 
the  corn  received  improper  cultivation  a  loss  in  the  yield  always 
results.  The  use  of  cultivation  is  usually  stated  in  three  divisions: 
first,  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil ;  second,  to  aerate  the 
soil;  third,  to  kill  the  weeds. 

Under  average  conditions  in  the  most  of  our  corn  producing 
states  the  conservation  of  the  soil  moisture  is  the  most  important 
work  which  the  cultivation  accomplishes.  The  way  in  which  this 
moisture  is  conserved  may  be  illustrated  by  a  very  simple  experi- 
ment. Take  some  colored  solution  like  red  ink  or  black  ink,  an 
ordinary  lump  of  sugar,  and  some  powdered  sugar.  Be  sure  to  use 
the  powdered  sugar  in  this  work  as  some  of  the  other  kinds  do  not 
illustrate  the  point.  If  the  colored  solution  is  allowed  to  strike 
the  bottom  part  of  the  loaf  sugar  it  will  immediately  rise  to  the 
top.  If  there  is  a  layer  of  the  powdered  sugar  over  the  top  of  this 
loaf,  or  if  the  powdered  sugar  is  thrown  on  this  loaf  at  this 
time,  the  moisture  will  go  no  farther  than  the  powdered  sugar  line 
as  indicated  by  the  color  of  the  two  substances-  We  might  com- 
pare this  to  the  plowing  and  cultivating  of  the  soil.  We  want  in 
the  seed  bed  a  compact  bed  and  a  deep  one.  If  it  is  compact  it 
will  allow  the  moisture  to  rise  as  this  experiment  has  shown  it 
to  do  in  the  lump  of  sugar.  Cultivating  it  in  the  top  layer  pro- 
duces a  stopping  place  for  the  moisture  and  very  little  is  evaporated 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Water  plays  such  an  important  function  in  the  plant  that  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  large  supply  and  yet  the  soil  must  not  be 
too  cold.  In  other  words  we  want  a  well  aired  soil  containing 
plenty  of  moisture.  How  to  maintain  this  supply  of  moisture  b}^ 
"a  dust  mulch  is  a  question  for  argument  even  yet.  Most  soih,, 
however,  require  shallow  cultivation  rather  than  deep.     The  reason 


CORN 


lOI 


3 
o 

Oh 


o 


I02  CORN 

for  this  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  roots  extend  so  close  to 
the  surface  that  if  deep  cultivation  is  practiced  they  will  be  injured 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  plant  will  be  producing  a  low  yield. 
The  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  performed  a  good 
many  experiments  along  the  line  of  how  to  cultivate  corn  to  the 
best  advantage  and  the  conclusions  which  they  draw  are  that 
shallow  cultivation  in  the  long  run  produces  the  best  results.  How- 
ever, it  is  nothing  exceptional  to  pass  along  the  road  during  the 
laying  by  of  the  corn,  there  to  see  men  hilling  up  and  ridging  the 
corn  rows.  Of  course  they  must  practice  deep  cultivation  to  get 
the  deep  ridge.  There  is  no.  advantage  in  this  practice.  It  only 
throws  the  surface  of  the  soil  open  to  more  wind  and  more  sun 
by  means  of  which  the  moisture  may  escape.  This  results,  of 
course,  in  some  loss  to  the  crop. 


What  Cultivator  to  Recommend. 

Questions  come  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  time 
and  time  again  asking  what  cultivator  ought  to  be  used  in  order 
to  get  best  results  from  the  corn.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
any  cultivator  that  will  not  injure  the  plant  above  or  below  the 
ground  and  yet  one  which  will  keep  a  dust  mulch  on  the  top  of  the 
ground  is  one  which  is  desired.  A  large  shovel  cultivator  will  not 
do  this.  But  there  are  many  knife  cultivators,  and  small  shovel 
cultivators,  which  will  produce  the  results  desired.  It  is  often 
found  advisable  when  the  corn  is  very  small  to  run  over  the  field 
with  a  weeder.  This  weeder  reaches  a  great  many  of  the  smaller 
weeds  which  would  not  be  reached  by  the  cultivator  itself  later 
and  it  does  no  'damage  whatever  to  the  growing  crop. 


THE  CLIMATE. 

The  climate  is  too  often  blamed  for  the  work  which  the  farmer 
has  neglected,  but  it  is  true  that  the  climate  influences  the  habit 


CORN 


103 


104  CORN 

of  growth  of  the  corn  plant.  Upon  this  point,  Hunt  says,  "There 
is  greater  variation  in  the  habit  of  the  maize  plant  than  any  other 
cereal.  These  variations  in  an}^  one  of  the  'five  types  of  maize 
seem  to  be  correlated  with  the  climatic  conditions  as  indicated  by 
the  great  variation  in  size  and  in  the  time  of  maturity  in  northern 
as  compared  with  southern  latitudes. 

"The  growing  season  for  maize  varies  in  different  sections  of 
the  United  States  from  ninety  to  160  days  and  varieties  exist  which 
are  adapted  to  these  different  growing  periods.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  as  we  go  north  or  south  of  a  given  latitude  a  variety 
becomes  one  day  later  or  earlier  for  each  ten  miles  of  travel,  the 
altitude  remaining  the  same.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore, 
in  selecting  new  varieties,  to  get  them  from  the  same  latitude.  If 
obtained  from  much  farther  north  they  may  ripen  too  early  and 
consequently  be  too  small.  If  obtained  much  farther  south,  they 
may  not  ripen. 

"Size  and  period  of  growth  are  also  influenced  by  moisture. 
Under'  conditions  of  favorable  water  supply,  the  plant  continued 
to  grow,  while  a  deficiency  will  reduce  growth  and  hasten  ripen- 
ing." 

It  is  also  known  that  climate  will  influence  the  chemical  com- 
position to  a  certain  extent  and  also  the  physical  characteristics  of 
some  of  the  varieties  if  changed  from  one  place  to  another.  It 
takes  as  a  rule  about  eighteen  inches  of  rainfall  to  produce  100 
bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  Of  course  if  eighteen  inches  is  all  the 
rainfall  that  is  secured  it  would  be  necessary  to  conserve  every 
ounce  of  it  to  produce  the  maximum  yield  which  the  land  ought 
to  srive. 


THE  FARMER. 

On  this  point,   orators   have  talked   and   columns  have  been 
written  but  there  are  still  those  men  in  the  farming  profession,  as 


CORN  105 

there  are  in  many  other  professions,  who  do  their  work  in  a  slip 
shod  way.  Then  when  the  reckoning  comes  they  say  that  the 
weather  was  against  them  or  that  they  had  bad  luck  or  they  offer 
some  excuse  wdiich  does  not  lay  the  blame  upon  their  work  at  all. 
It  ought  to  be  remenibered  very  carefully  that  unless  the  man  who 
is  doing  the  work  looks  toward  the  details,  is  careful  in  everything 
he  undertakes,  knows  what  he  is  about,  and  does  what  he  knows — 
unless  the  man  is  of  this  character,  a  failure  is  bound  to  result 
from  the  work  that  he  does. 


THE  HARVEST. 

To  the  days  of  harvest,  every  farmer  looks  forward.  In  fact, 
this  is  the  goal  toward  which  he  has  been  working  and  if  he  has 
been  satisfied  with  his  work  through  the  months  of  culture  the 
yield  ought  to  be  high.  The  time  of  harvesting  is  important,  es- 
pecially from  the  seed  standpoint;  but  from  a  cribbing  standpoint 
it  is  important  as  well.  There  is  just  one  thing  to  say  along  this 
line  and  that  is  that  the  harvesting  should  be  done  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, which  statement  might  be  made  in  regard  to  any  work  of  the 
farm.  Of  course  the  grain  ought  to  be  well  matured  before  it  is 
cut  or  before  it  is  picked  so  that  the  moisture  content  will  not  be 
so  high  that  the  corn  spoils  when  put  into  storage.  The -methods 
of  harvesting  and  the  machinery  used  are  all  too  familiar  to 
those  who-  have  lived  in  the  corn  sections  of  the  country  to  be 
mentioned  here.  ' 

But  even  with  the  difficulties  of  the  harvest  time  there  is  no 
period  of  the  fann  life  which  is  brighter-  Then  comes  the  storing 
of  the  corn  which  should  be  cared  for  in  an  intelligent  manner. 
Much  labor  has  been  put  upon  the  crop,  the  harvesting  has  taken 
time  and  patience,  and  now  the  corn  is  ready  to  be  turned  into 
meat  which  mill  mean  increased  returns  to  the  farmer.  A  glance 
ahead  will  determine  what  ought  to  be  done-  A  little  thought 
occasionally  given  to  the  work  will  mean  at  the  end  financial  re- 
turns which  will  well  pay  for  all  the  hard  labor  that  has  been  put 
upon  the  culture  of  the  plant. 


io6 


CORN 


CORN  10/ 


EXAMINATION 


Note  to  Students — These  questions  are  to  be  answered  inde- 
pendently. Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  3'our  examina- 
tion. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6  in.  x  pin.  for  the  examination. 
Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never  repeat 
the  question.     Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


Questions. 

1.  What  is  corn  culture? 

2.  Of  what  value  would  the  study  of  Botany  be  tO'  the  farmer? 

3.  What  was  the  yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States  in  1909? 

4.  Name  five  possible  causes  for  low  yield  in  corn. 

5.  AVhy  is  the  seed  so  important? 

6.  Does  it  matter  what  varieties  of  corn  a  man  raises?     Wh}'? 

7.  How  can  we  move  varieties  of  corn  and  do  it  successfully 
from  one  locality  to  another? 

8.  A'Vhat  do  we  mean  bv  a  varietv  of  corn  ? 


io8  CORN 

9.     If  seed  can  not  be  secured  at  home  what  is  the  best  thing 
to  do? 

10-     What  are  the  possible  ways  of  selecting  the  corn  from 
the  home  field? 

11.  What  are  the  advantages  of  each? 

12.  When  should  seed  corn  be  selected  and  why? 

13-     Give  the   dates   set   by  various   states   for   selecting   seed 
corn. 

14.  What  points  should  be  noted  in  selecting  seed  corn  from 
the  field? 

15.  Name  three  ways  that  you  know  seed  corn  may  be  stored 
safely. 

16.  AVhy  is  testing  of  our  seed  corn  necessary? 

17.  Describe  a  way  in  which  corn  may  be  tested  satisfactoril}-. 

18.  What  points  ought  to  be  regarded  in  preparing  a  germi- 
nation box? 

19.  How  can  we  tell  good  corn  as  we  see  it  germinating  in 
the  box? 

20.  Why  should  the  butts  and  tips  of  the  ears  be  shelled  be- 
fore putting  in  the  seed?     Is  there  any  loss  in  this  way? 

21.  What  advantage  is  there  in  arranging  the  planter  so  that 
the  seeds  drop  uniformly? 

22.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  soil? 

23.  What  are  the  uses  to  which  the  soil  is  put? 
24-     AA'hat  is  a  o'ood  corn  soil? 


CORN  109 

25.  What  do  we  mean  by  a  rotation? 

26.  Why  is  a  rotation  desirable? 

27.  Why  is  it  suggested  to  keep  crops  on  the  soil  all  of  the 
time? 

28.  Name  in  detail  the  conditions  of  germination. 

29.  What  is  the  best  time  to  plow  the  land? 

30.  On  what  land  should  corn  be  grown? 

31.  Give  some  of  the  advantages  of  fall  plowing. 

32.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  plow  deeply  in  most  cases? 

33.  How  ought  the  seed  bed  to  be  prepared? 

34.  What  do  we  mean  by  drilling  the  corn?     What  are  its 
advantages  over  check-rowing? 

25.     W^hat  is  listng? 

36.  Under  what  conditions  is  listing  practiced? 

37.  At  what  time   should  corn  be  planted?     Does  this   vary 
with  the  different  states,  and  why?     ' 

38.  What  can  be  said  about  the  use  of  barnyard  manure  in 
the  production  of  corn? 

39-     Are  commercial  fertilizers  ever  desirable? 

40.     Name  some  of  the  materials  which  are  used  in   making 
up  a  commercial  fertilizer  for  corn  land. 

41-     State  four  ways  in  which  the  climate  will  affect  the  growth 
of  the  crop  either  for  better  or  worse. 

42.     Cite  three  or  four  instances  where  the  climate  has  affected 
the  crop  either  for  better  or  worse. 


no  CORN 

43.  What  characteristics  ought  a  farmer  to  possess  to  grow 
corn  successfully? 

44.  When  should  the  general  harvest  take  place? 

45.  In  what  ought  all  of  the  general  culture  of  corn  result? 


Write  This  at  the  End  ©f  Your  Examination 

I  hereb}'  certif}'  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  entirel}' 
by  me. 

Signed 

Address 


;^;(;;  H  j**<" 


fjaai lai 


l=ll^)^=]|=IE 


3BtTr— -rlB 


^  Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


CORN-PART   THREE 


L 


TSiT" 


J      iVHfl      I® 


THE 


Correspondence   College 
of  Agriculture 


FORT  WAYNE,  INDIANA 


CORN— Part  III 


Corn  Culture 

By  HARRY  B.  POTTER.  B.  S. 

"Farm  and  Fireside" 

Springfield,  Ohio 


This  is  the  Third  of  a  Series  of  Four  Books  giving  a  Complete  Course  of  Instruction 

on  Com 


COPYRIGHT,  191 1 
'Che  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE    TO    STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from  this 
paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While  it  is  not  in- 
tended that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the  text  to  memory, 
still  there  is  nothing  contained  in  the  text  which  is  not  absolutely 
essential  for  the  intelligent  corn  grower  to  know.  For  your  own 
good  never  refer  to  the  examination  questions  until  you  have  fin- 
ished your  study  of  the  text.  By  following  this  plan,  the  examin- 
ation paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


JUDGING  CORN  FOR  THE 
MARKET 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  time  has  passed  when  corn  is  placed  on  the  show  table 
merely  to  be  judged,  as  the  saying  goes. 

Time  was  when  there  were  many  who  would  be  willing  to  take 
corn  to  a  show  that  it  might  win  a  prize.  Now  interest  is  even 
greater  than  in  former  times,  but  the  fact  that  there  is  greater  inter- 
est now  than  ever  before  is  due  to  the  associated  fact  that  there  is  a 
different  method  of  procedure.  The  old  system  of  judging  corn  on 
some  fancy  points  is  a  matter  of  history.  And  yet  after  a  careful 
survey  of  the  entire  history  of  corn  judging  one  must  admit  that 
many  of  the  points  which  were  considered  so  essential  in  ah  ear  of 
corn  in  the  days  past  are  just  as  essential  today  but  the  reasons  for 
those  points  is  discovered.  That  differentiates  the  old  from  the  new, 
the  past  from  the  present. 

But  the  question  naturally  arises :  Why  is  it  at  all  necessary  to 
know  the  reasons  for  these  points  of  judging  ?  To  know  the  points  is 
sufficient.  The  answer  comes  with  the  more  accurate  age  of  which 
we  are  a  part,  and  it:  is  that  this  present  day  will  not  stand  for  a 
mere  statement  of  what  is  presumably  true,  but  demands  a  proof. 
The  attitude  thus  es;pressed  on  every  hand,  by  word  and  action,  has 
made  it  necessary  to  look  into  the  points  of  the  ear  of  corn  previously 
considered  good  to  see  whether  the  truth  was  being  spoken  or  not. 

The  result  of  these  investigations  can  be  given  only  in  part,  but 
that  is  to  be  a  portion  of  this  lesson.    Almost  everyone  has  some  ideas 


112  CORN 

as  to  the  qualifications  for  a  good  ear  of  corn,  and  so  it  is  not  the  in- 
tention to  repeat  stock  phrases  except  as  they  will  help  bring  out  the 
point  at  hand.  As  was  said  many  of  these  phrases  must  be  taken  for 
the  truth  until  such  time  when  experiments  will  have  been  conducted 
long  enough  to  make  what  is  said  accurate. 

One  of  the  objects  of  this  lesson  is  to  bring  out  the  points  old 
and  new  which  have  to  do  with  better  corn,  so  that  the  student  when 
he  has  completed  the  course  will  be  able  to  judge  correctly  as  to  the 
merits  of  one  class  of  corn  when  compared  with  another. 


The  Markets  Set  the  Standards. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  the  amount  of  corn  fed  by 
the  various  states  in  proportion  to  the  total  amount  raised.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  two  of  the  leading  states  in  the  production  of 
corn,  Illinois  and  Iowa.  These  two  states  have  what  will  always  be 
considered  ideal  conditions  for  corn  growing.  And  these  ideal  condi- 
tions count  for  a  great  deal.  But  the  use  to  which  these  thousands 
and  thousands  of  bushels  of  corn  are  put  is  not  determined  by  the 
weather.  It  would  be  difficult  to  ascertain  what  is  the  cause  of  the 
differences  in  the  disposal  of  the  crops  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  but  the 
student  of  the  markets  will  tell  you  that  Illinois  sells  the  most  of  her 
corn  on  the  Chicago  and  near-by  markets  while  Iowa  is  feeding  her 
corn.  It  is  altogether  possible  for  the  farmer  to  do  as  Illinois  is  do- 
ing and  yet  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  but  the  safest  policy  is 
to  feed  on  the  home  farm.  "When  this  is  done  with  skill  back  of  the 
feeding  there  will  be  as  large  returns  or  larger,  financially,  and  the 
value  of  the  manure  being  added  to  the  soil  cannot  be  estimated. 

However  this  may  be,  there  is  a  present  day  financial  interest 
that  sets  the  standards  for  the  relative  profit  that  may  be  made.  Let 
me  make  this  point  clear.  There  may  be  a  market  close  at  hand  where 
a  large  amount  of  money  may  be  secured  from  the  sale  of  the  corn 
direct.  We  will  say  that  there  is  a  corn-starch  factory,  or  a  brew- 
ing concern  at  hand.  The  demand  for  good  corn  is  great.  Conse- 
quently the  price  that  is  paid  is  high.  The  farmer,  in  considering 
whether  it  will  pay  him  to  sell  his  corn  or  not,  must  consider  the 
market  price.  The  fact  that  there  will  be  ready  money  resulting 
from  such  a  deal  has  its  influence,  and  so  if  the  market  speaks  loudly 


CORN  113 

enough  the  corn  is  sold  and  the  land  goes  without  the  manure.  Con- 
sequently the  market  sets  the  standard  for  the  farmer.  And  this  is 
true  whether  the  farmer  sells  his  grain  on  the  market  or  not. 

It  is  the  common  thought  that  the  feeding  use  to  which  corn  is 
put  as  it  is  sold  from  the  markets  sets  the  standards  for  that  price. 
This  is  true  only  in  a  limited  way.  Of  course  when  a  car  load  of 
corn  is  fed  to  a  bunch  of  steers  there  is  naturally  an  influence  on  the 
market  price.  But  the  factors  of  a  more  commercial  nature  have 
so  much  prominence  that  the  amount  of  feeding,  great  as  it  is,  is 
hardly  perceptible  in  its  influence  on  the  market  value. 

It  would  be  going  into  a  great  deal  of  detail  to  take  up  the  vari- 
ous manufacturing  concerns  that  use  corn  in  the  ware  that  they  are 
producing,  and  which  when  resold  brings  per  bushel  of  corn  used 
far  more  than  would  beef  or  pork  produced  from  the  same  amount 
of  corn.  But  there  are  an  infinite  number  of  these  concerns  and 
they  are  influencing  the  markets. 

So  really,  after  all  argument  is  made  one  way  or  another,  the 
market,  we  conclude,  tells  us  how  much  we  are  to  receive  for  the 
corn  that  we  have  to  sell  and  that  market  is  not  based  on  one  use 
to  which  corn  is  put,  but  is  based  on  many  uses,  and  includes  what- 
ever influence  feeding  has  had. 

The  Farm  and  Corn  Standards. 

But  there  is  another  phase  to  the  matter  which  has  been  left 
out  thus  far  and  which  is  of  much  importance.  The  market  speaks 
of  quality,  but  says  nothing  as  to  quantity  to  be  raised  per  acre. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  farmer  may  increase  his  net 
income  from  the  corn  crop.  The  one  is  to  grow  better  corn.  The 
other  is  to  grow  more  corn.  The  ideal  of  every  farm  should  be  to 
grow  more  and  better  corn  on  every  acre. 

And  it  is  the  farm  that  says  "more."  Or  perhaps  it  is  the 
farmer  as  he  is  trying  to  get  the  mortgage  paid,  or  to  send  the  boy 
off  to  school.  Whatever  the  reason  the  fact  remains.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  these  two  standards  cannot  be  run  hand  in  hand.  The  past, 
however,  would  lead  us  to  believe,  if  we  are  to  trust  history,  that 
either  quality  or  quantity  could  exist,  but  not  both.    That  is,  there 


114 


CORN 


CORN  115 

were  advocates  of  the  fancy  ear  of  corn  who  forgot  all  about  the  real 
practicable  ear,  while  there  were  those  who  said  that  the  ear  wanted 
was  the  large  ear  regardless  of  its  form. 

In  some  respects  both  were  right.    But  it  remained  for  the  next 
set  of  workers  to  combine  the  two  standards. 


Judging  Should  Conform  to  These  Ideals. 

So  when  corn  goes  on  the  show  table  today  it  is  subject  to  the 
test  as  to  quality  and  as  to  quantity.    At  least  it  should  be. 

There  is  reason  and  sound  judgment  in  this  policy.  What 
farmer  wants  to  raise  corn  that  will  go  on  the  market  in  a  poor  con- 
dition or  that  will  mould  before  he  has  a  chance  to  feed  it?  "What 
farmer  desires  to  raise  corn  that  while  it  may  be  sound  and  mature 
will  yield  only  a  part  of  what  his  neighbor's  corn  is  yielding? 

Of  course  it  will  be  said  that  there  has  always  been  the  hope  on 
the  part  of  everyone  interested  in  the  production  of  corn  to  get  more 
to  the  acre.  That  is  true.  But  there  has  been  a  wide  separation 
at  the  show  table  because  of  the  fact,  as  before  mentioned,  that  the 
fancy  points  were  supposed  to  bring  the  best  results  in  the  field.  The 
interest  of  this  present  day  lies  in  the  work  which  is  being  done  to 
ascertain  what  ones,  of  the  numerous  points  usually  conceded  to  be 
true,  are  actually  correct. 


The  Fault  of  the  Past. 

If  the  past  work  with  the  show  table  where  corn  was  being  ex- 
hibited is  to  be  censured,  it  is  in  the  fact  that  those  who  did  the 
work  thought  too  much  of  these  fancy  points.  Example  after  exam- 
ple might  be  given  where  prizes  were  awarded  because  the  samples 
winning  just  suited  the  fancy  of  the  judge.  After  all  is  said  it  is  of 
course  true  that  the  judge  must  place  the  corn  according  to  his 
ideas  and  yet  at  the  same  time  this  ought  to  mean  that  his  ideas  are 
not  such  as  have  little  or  no  truth  back  of  them. 

Let  us  cite  an  example  of  this.  There  was  a  time  when  the  well 
•filled  butt  and  tip  were  the  first  things  that  judges  looked  for.  That 
is  not  true  today  for  the  reason  that  the  men  who  have  been  work- 


116  CORN 

ing  with  corn  have  discovered  that  there  is  no  need  for  so  much  im- 
portance on  these  two  points.  How  has  this  been  discovered?  In 
the  usual  way  that  all  agricultural  problems  are  solved:  at  the  ex- 
periment stations.  There  have  been  a  number  of  stations  working 
with  such  problems,  and  all  of  them  have  come  out  with  the  state- 
ment that  there  should  not  be  a  well  filled  tip  if  the  other  points  of 
the  ear,  such  as  the  kernel  shape,  and  size,  are  to  be  sacrificed  for  it. 
And  yet  that  is  just  what  the  workers  of  past  days  were  doing.  Here 
is  where  we  are  able  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  others.  No  doubt 
there  are  mistakes  in  our  own  work  that  the  generations  following 
will  correct. 

The  Show  and  the  Judge. 

Of  course  the  importance  of  the  judge's  work  does  not  show  as 
plainly  anywhere  as  it  does  in  the  show  ring.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
that  is  the  place  where  it  really  is  of  the  least  importance,  for  the 
work  that  is  done  there  is  only  preparatory  to  the  greater  work  to 
be  done  at  the  home  farm.  There  are  those  men,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  who  are  able  to  judge  at  a  show,  but  who  when  placed  at  the 
farm  are  utterly  useless.  The  benefit  that  they  are  to  farm  life  then 
is  only  indirect.  The  man  who  learns  from  the  show  and  takes  that 
knowledge  to  the  farm  is  the  one  who  places  the  learning  where  it 
belongs. 


Important  Shows. 

Over  the  country  there  have  been  held  many  shows  of  some  im- 
portance. All  of  them  have  a  bearing  upon  the  agricultural  inter- 
ests of  the  section  where  they  are  held.  The  National  Corn  show 
which  has  been  held  at  Chicago,  Omaha  and  Columbus  during  vari- 
ous years  is  the  greatest  show  of  its  kind  in  the  country.  Thousands 
of  ears  of  corn  are  placed  on  exhibition  at  this  National  show.  It  is 
usually  held  during  the  month  of  December.  Throngs  of  people 
from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  attend  and  thereby  show  the  great  in- 
terest that  is  more  and  more  centering  in  agricultural  pursuits 
everywhere.  Other  shows  such  as  that  held  at  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa, 
under  the  name  of  the  Missouri  Valley  Corn  Show,  and  those  held 


CORN  117 

at  Lafayette,  Indiana;  Des  Moines,  Iowa;  Lincoln,  Nebraska;  Ur- 
bana,  Illinois,  and  a  dozen  or  more  other  places  are  attracting  a 
great  deal  of  interest.  They  are  all  big  shows  even  though  there  are 
not  the  entries  found  at  the  National  show.  They  are  big  because 
of  the  purpose  behind  them. 

So,  after  all,  every  show  held  is  a  big  one,  even  though  that 
show  be  but  for  a  very  small  section.  "Where  ever  a  county  takes 
enough  interest  in  the  farming  of  its  district  to  have  a  show  there 
is  a  big  work  being  done.  Such  a  work  ought  to  be  taking  place  in 
every  community. 

The  Value  of  Judging. 

The  statement  has  already  been  made  that  the  value  of  the  work 
which  is  done  around  the  judging  table  does  not  lie  in  the  fact  that 
there  are  a  few  samples  of  corn  placed  one  over  the  other  in  order 
of  merit.  It  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  someone  who  will  see  where- 
in he  is  not  raising  the  kind  of  corn  that  is  best,  and  the  result  will 
show  on  the  farm.  It  is  on  the  farm,  then,  that  there  should  be  the 
largest  benefit  and  if  the  work  does  not  show  there  it  will  have  been 
done  in  vain. 

But  there  are  some  benefits  coming  to  the  man  who  is  doing  the 
judging  that  ought  to  be  mentioned  at  this  point.  In  the  fi^rst  place 
there  are  some  qualifications  of  a  good  judge  that  are  necessary  for 
efficient  work.  These  might  be  summed  up  by  the  words,  quick,  at- 
tentive, enthusiastic,  keen  of  eye,  and  fair  minded.  Quick  because 
the  man  who  goes  too  slowly  will  never  be  able  to  accomplish  the 
work  that  is  often  placed  before  the  corn  judge,  and  yet  this  quali- 
fication will  never  include  hastiness,  for  the  man  who  places  his 
ideas  too  thoughtlessly  will  make  mistakes  of  all  kinds.  Attentive, 
because  the  very  work  that  he  is  to  do  has  for  its  purpose  the  art 
of  seeing  things.  Enthusiastic,  because  he  could  not  do  the  job  well 
without  a  deep  interest  in  the  purpose  of  such  work.  Keen  of  eye, 
(which  is  more  a  matter  of  training  than  it  is  of  ability  and  yet 
there  are  those  who  possess  a  large  measure  of  this  talent),  because 
of  the  details  incilmbent  upon  the  judge  of  good  corn.  Fair  minded, 
for  the  reason  that  there  are  so  many  prejudices  to  overcome  and 
so  many  influences  that  are  apt  to  work  for  unfairness. 


118 


CORN 


PLATE  2. — In  1907  Johnson  County  White  began  to  be  known.  This  ten  ear 
sample  won  the  high  honors  at  the  National  Corn  Show  at  Chicago,  and 
then  sold  at  auction  for  $550.  It  paid  to  raise  good  corn  in  this  case.  The 
shoTv  is  but  an  indication  of  what  will  pay  on  the  average  farms.  Not  that 
this  corn  is  for  all  farms,  but  a  corn  of  good  breeding  is  needed  every- 
where. Why  not  begin  by  breeding  the  corn  that  you  have  on  the  home 
place? 


CORN  119 

Then  follow  the  benefits  for  such  work  and  they  are  right  in 
the  trail  of  the  qualifications  mentioned.  The  eyes  are  trained  for 
seeing  quickly,  thoroughly,  broadly,  and  with  other  things  in  mind. 
That  is  with  a  view  of  the  other  good  samples  of  corn  everywhere 
€ven  though  the  one  at  hand  does  have  a  few  fancy  points  that  par- 
ticularly please. 

Judging  and  Scoring. 

"We  have  gone  thus  far  and  have  said  nothing  about  the  word 
judging  itself.  What  does  it  mean?  Then  there  is  the  other  word 
of  scoring  that  is  used  so  much  in  connection  with  corn  shows.  What 
does  that  mean? 

Judging  is  the  work  which  is  done  when  a  number  of  samples 
or  ears  are  placed  in  order  of  their  merit,  putting  the  best  sample 
or  ear  first,  second  second,  and  so  on,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
figures  at  all.  Scoring  is  the  work  done  when  a  sample  is  taken  and 
.a  value  given  on  that  sample  as  compared  with  an  ideal  which  the 
man,  who  is  doing  the  work,  has  in  mind.  No  other  sample  need 
necessarily  be  around.  The  work  of  scoring  does  not  have  the  ob- 
ject in  mind  of  placing  samples  or  ears.  It  simply  gives  a  value  to 
the  ear,  the  same  as  a  grade  may  be  given  to  a  pupil  in  the  class 
room,  and  this  practice  is  subject  to  the  same  criticisms  and  errors 
with  corn  as  with  pupils. 

Other  Judging  Work. 

The  principle  of  judging  is  common  in  many  walks  of  life  and 
many  vocations.  All  agricultural  products  go  under  the  eye  of  the 
judge,  animals,  plants  and  work.  Every  day  the  ball  games  of  the 
land  display  a  feature  which  really  is  based  on  the  decisions  of  one 
man.  Perhaps  the  greatest  American  event  along  the  line  of  agri- 
cultural shows  is  the  International  Live  Stock  Show  at  Chicago.  No 
greater  event  in  its  size  and  importance  to  the  agricultural  inter- 
ests of  America  could  be  planned.  And  this  is  based  on  the  work 
of  judging,  for  if  that  were  eliminated  there  would  be  no  reason 
for  the  show.  Very  few  shows  have  interest  where  the  best  speci- 
mens are  not  pointed  out  to  the  spectators. 


120  CORN 

Animal  and  Plant  Judging. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  similarity  be- 
tween plant  and  animal  judging.  And  at  the  same  time  the  dissimi- 
larity becomes  apparent.  At  the  very  outset,  in  the  judging  of  stock, 
we  deal  with  the  living,  the  animate,  while  with  grain  we  are  deal- 
ing with  that  which  no  longer  has  life  in  a  perceptible  form.  "We 
come  in  contact  with  an  animal  and  learn  it  through  its  movements 
or  actions.  With  grain  there  is  no  movement  on  which  to  place  the 
judgment.  Likewise  there  is  a  difference  in  the  form.  In  the  ani- 
mal life  we  have  the  object  in  all  of  the  stages  of  its  development, 
from  the  very  young  creature  to  that  mature.  With  plants,  the  most 
common  is  the  mature  product  only.  But  we  find  many  of  the 
same  terms  used,  such  as  constitution,  breed  type,  and  the  like.  But 
the  main  similarity  comes  in  the  manner  by  which  the  work  of  each 
group  of  objects  is  accomplished.     Of  that  we  will  speak  later. 


THE  SCORE  CARD. 

The  Value  of  the  Score  Card. 

There  has  been  all  sorts  of  controversy  over  the  use  of  the  score 
card  just  the  same  as  there  has  been  disputes  over  the  system  of 
grading  in  the  public  schools.  While  we  let  those  men  who  are  spe- 
cially interested  in  the  educational  work  fight  that  matter  out  yet 
we  are  interested  because  the  subject  relates  to  agriculture.  The 
point  under  dispute  is  that  of  whether  or  not  the  card  will  tell  what 
an  ear  in  a  sample  or  alone  is  really  worth.  There  has  been  little  or 
no  dispute  over  the  matter  of  the  educational  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  a  use  of  the  score  card.  Everyone  admits  that  the  card  is  one 
of  the  best  methods  of  training  students  to  be  efficient  judges.  The  . 
Score  Card  is  not  then  an  end  in  itself,  but  it  is  a  means  toward  an 
end.    That  end  is  a  better  knowledge  of  corn. 

So  we  are  studying  the  corn  in  the  ear,  plant,  "and  as  it  is  found 
on  the  market  we  must  remember  that  what  we  are  doing  is  learn- 
ing corn.  We  are  not  committing  a  card  with  the  figures  on  it.  But 
in  order  to  bring  out  the  points  in  the  best  manner  the  card  will  be 
used  here.     In  all  of  the  work  keep  an  ear  of  corn  on  the  table  or 


CORN  121 

on  your  lap  or  in  your  hand  so  that  as  the  various  points  are  men- 
tioned you  can  see  the  corn,  or  perhaps  a  good  picture  of  some  corn, 
rather  than  the  figures  on  the  card  and  nothing  else. 


The  Score  Cards  Used  Here. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  work  the  score  card,  as  it  has  been  ar- 
ranged by  Iowa  State  College,  will  be  used.  This  card  is  still  used 
there  and  with  modifications  in  several  other  places.  Cards  will  be 
used  later  on  that  will  bring  other  points  to  your  attention. 

Before  we  start  in,  there  ought  to  be,  within  easy  reach,  a  full 
tray  of  corn.  That  is,  ten  ears.  Ten  ears  is  the  standard  number 
used  in  all  judging  work..  And  these  may  be  laid  on  the  floor  with 
a;  nail  between  each  two  ears,  or  a  strip  of  wood  or  a  corn  stalk  may 
be  placed  between  the  ears  if  the  corn  is  laid  on  a  place  where  nails 
may  not  be  driven. 

"We  will  suppose  that  we  are  going  to  judge  a  regular  show  and 
that  there  are  a  number  of  samples  like  the  ten-ear  sample  with 
which  we  are  working,  that  all  of  these  are  trying  to  win.  "What  the 
judge  is  to  do  is  to  place  a  fair  estimate  on  each  sample.  Bear  in 
mind  that  we  cannot  finally  place  the  samples  by  the  card,  but  that 
the  card  brings  out  for  us  the  defects  and  the  merits  of  the  samples 
at  hand.  "We  are  not  yet  very  far  along  in  the  corn  judging  busi- 
ness. 

The  corn  is  to  be  studied  under  four  heads:  1 — "Will  it  yield! 
2 — "Will  it  ripen?  3 — ^Will  it  grow?  4 — Does  it  show  improve- 
ment? These  are  all  difficult  to  determine,  but  the  last  two  are  the 
most  difiicult.  These  parts  will  be  studied  separately.  Each  part 
will  be  allowed  twenty-five  points  for  the  perfect.  By  that  is  meant 
that  if  an  ear  is  without  fault  in  the  characteristic  being  studied  it 
will  be  credited  with  25,  but  if  there  are  some  faults,  the  25  will  be 
reduced  to  whatever  the  seriousness  of  the  faults  demand.  To  illus- 
trate that  point :  Suppose  that  an  ear  to  be  perfect  in  shape  must  be 
cylindrical,  and  that  25  is  allowed  on  shape.  Ear  number  one  is  just 
a  little  tapering.  Ear  number  two  is  very  pointed.  Ear  number 
one  would  receive  as  its  value  probably  23,  while  ear  number  two 
would  get  but  14.  The  whole  card  when  completed  will  look  like 
this: 


122 


CORN 


CORN  123 

CORN— SCORE  CARD. 


Name Class , 

Number  of  Sample Date . , 


I.  Will   It  Yield? 25  points 

11.  Will  It  Ripen? 25  points 

III.  Will  It  Grow? 25  points 

IV.  Does  It  Show  Improvement  ? 25  points 


Total  Perfect  Score 100  points 


That  is,  if  the  ear  is  perfect  it  will  have  a  score  of  100.  Some 
one  will  say  that  there  are  no  perfect  ears.  Perhaps  there  are  not, 
but  the  judge  can  combine  the  perfect  points  that  he  has  seen  in 
other  ears  into  an  ideal,  and  by  this  he  can  tell  how  nearly  the  ac- 
tual comes  to  the  ideal. 

On  all  score  cards  the  name  of  the  judge  should  be  placed.  The 
term  "Class"  refers  to  the  kind  of  corn,  or  the  section  from  which 
it  comes.  For  example,  ' '  yellow, "  or  "  northern  half  of  county, ' '  or 
^'Reid's  Yellow  Dent,"  or  "Pop  corn."  Bach  sample  must  have  a 
number.  This  number  refers  to  the  person  who  is  displaying  the 
corn.  Of  course  the  judge  goes  only  by  the  number.  The  date  is 
usually  put  on  the  card  so  that  in  case  of  a  dispute  over  the  matter 
later  there  will  be  that  information  at  hand.  It  is  a  pretty  good 
habit  to  date  everything.  There  is  no  telling  when  that  fact  will  be 
needed.  In  taking  up  the  first  point.  Will  It  Yield?  the  card  will 
further  be  divided  into  eleven  parts  as  follows: 


124 


CORN 


I.     WILL  IT  YIELD?     25  POINTS 


That  is,  will  it  yield  well 
unfavorable? 

has  it  constitution 

;  can  we  depend  on  it  even  when  conditio 

as  are- 

Perf. 
Score 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

I 

Will  it  Yield? 

25 

1 

Size  of  Ear                      6 



2 

Solidity  or  Heaviness    4 

i 

Depth  of  Kernels          3 

4 

Cheerfulness                 3 

5 

Size  of  Germs                2 

6 

Fullness  of  Middle        2 

1 

1 

7 

PtUiog  of  Butts               1 

1 

8 

Filling  of  Tips               1 

-j- 

9 

Space  at  Cob                  1 

10 

Furrows  between 
Rows                             1 

1 

11 

Size  and  Conduion  of 
Cob                               1 

1 

This  first  part  is  the  raost  important  of  the  four.  Why?  Be- 
cause the  bushels  per  acre  is  all  that  makes  the  raising  of  corn  prof- 
itable. If  we  forget  that,  even  though  we  know  all  else  there  is 
bound  to  be  a  failure.  How  can  this  point  be  told  by  looking  at  the 
ears  ?  That  is  a  fair  question.  It  cannot.  Then  why  are  we  study- 
ing the  ears  at  all?  Because  there  are  some  points  which  if  they 
are  observed  will  tell  to  a  pretty  fine  degree  of  accuracy  whether 
the  ears  will  yield  or  not.  The  eleven  items  which  are  given  above, 
if  the  ears  show  the  points  developed  as  they  should  be,  will  indi- 
cate high  yielders  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred.  That  is 
the  reason  for  the  study.  The  ears  do  tell  a  story.  And  the  ears.^ 
that  will  produce  much  corn  are  the  ears  that  are  needed.  But  they 
must  have  the  ability  to  produce  that  corn  when  conditions  are  not 
favorable.    It  takes  the  very  best  of  ears  to  do  that. 


Explanation. 

1.  Size  of  Ear — With  the  proportion  of  corn  to  cob  being  the 
same,  the  larger  the  ear,  the  greater  the  yield  of  shelled  corn,  pro- 
viding the  same  number  of  ears  are  raised  on  an  acre.    The  ability 


CORN  125 

to  mature  limits  the  size.  This  last  statement  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  between  the  various  parts  of  the 
card.  Here  the  fact  that  an  ear  does  not  mature  well  will  reduce 
its  power  of  yielding.  But  it  is  the  yielding  that  we  are  thinking 
of  at  this  time. 

2.  Solidity  or  Heaviness — If  the  ear  is  dry,  the  firmer  it  is  and 
the  heavier  in  proportion  to  size,  the  greater  is  the  weight  of  shelled 
corn  per  acre  and  the  better  the  quality.  This  point  and  the  one 
before  it  says  that  if  the  ear  is  a  heavy  one,  and  every  other  ear  in 
the  field  is  a  heavy  one,  there  will  be  a  greater  yield  than  if  there 
were  light  ears.  For  the  market  today  takes  corn  as  well  as  other 
grains  by  the  weight. 

3.  Depth  of  Kernel — If  the  corn  has  matured,  the  deeper  the 
kernel  the  greater  the  proportion  of  corn  to  cob,  and  consequently 
the  better  the  yield  of  shelled  corn.  The  depth  of  the  kernel  should 
carry  out  well  toward  the  tip  of  the  ear.  That  is,  all  of  the  kernels 
of  the  ears  should  be  as  nearly  like  the  center  kernels  as  possible. 

4.  Cheerfulness. — A  bright,  clear  color  and  a  clean,  healthy 
appearance  of  the  grain  and  cob  of  an  ear  indicate  sound  corn  of 
good  quality  and  that  it  will  produce  strong  stalks  when  planted. 
It  will  do  something  even  under  unfavorable  conditions.  This  point 
can  be  told  as  easily  after  a  little  practice  as  whether  a  person  has 
a  bright  eye  or  not. 

5.  Size  of  Germs — Large  deep  germs  show  high  feeding  value 
and  ability  to  produce  strong  vigorous  stalks.  Of  course  there  is 
a  limit  to  the  size  of  germ,  but  the  larger  the  germ  under  reason- 
able limits  the  higher  the  yield  in  the  field  will  be.  Experiments 
have  shown  this  to  be  true. 

6.  Fullness  of  Middle — Fullness  in  the  middle  of  the  ear  in- 
dicates vigor,  good  weight  of  ear,  and  a  high  proportion  of  corn  to 
cob.  It  is  about  the  same  as  the  heart  girth  on  an  animal.  It  shows 
that  there  is  some  strength  worth  having. 

7.  Filling  of  Butts — A  butt  well  filled  with  uniform  kernels 
indicates  proper  development  of  the  ear  and  stalks,  a  strong  shank 
that  will  hold  the  ear  on  the  stalk  in  high  winds,  and  a  high  propor- 
tion of  corn  to  cob. 


126 


CORN 


PLATE  4.— The  National  Show  in  1908  said  that  this  wa,s  as  near  to  the  ideal 
in  corn  as  nature  was  apt  to  produce.  Certainly  it  has  straight  rows  the 
kernels  tre  rightly  spaced  at  the  crown,  the  tips  and  butts  are  well  filled 
and  notice  the  kernels  right  in  next  to  the  cob.  There  is  no  space  wasted 
between  them.     The  ear  shows  much  uniformity. 


CORN  127 

8.  Filling  of  Tips — ^A  tip  well  filled  with  strong  uniform  ker- 
nels indicates  complete  development  of  the  ear,  and  a  high  propor- 
tion of  corn  to  cob.  Time  was  when  these  last  two  points  were  the 
first  that  were  examined  by  the  judge  for  he  thought  that  they  were 
the  important  ones.  That  time  has  passed.  "While  a  good  tip  and 
a  good  butt  are  to  be  desired,  they  must  not  be  secured  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  other  features.  It  is  commonly  known  that  breeding  for  a 
well  filled  tip  will  in  the  end  shorten  the  ear.  That  means  the  yield, 
will  be  reduced.  When  the  study  on  Breeding  Corn  comes  we  will 
see  how  the  evils  such  as  this  may  be  overcome. 

9.  Space  at  Cob — Space  at  cob  is  a  very  definite  indication  of 
a  low  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  It  may  indicate  immaturity,  or  im- 
proper development  and  consequently  low  feeding  value, 

10.  Furrows  Between  Rows — Wide  furrows  between  rows  in- 
dicate a  low  proportion  of  corn  to  cob  and  the  running  out  of  the 
corn.  Closeness  at  the  crown,  lack  of  furrow,  usually  indicates 
space  at  cob.  There  should  be  sufficient  furrow  to  allow  the  corn  to 
dry  out  readily. 

11.  Size,  Density  and  Condition  of  Cob — A  large,  heavy,  woody 
cob  indicates  a  low  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  A  cob  may  be  small 
and  still  be  heavy.  A  medium  sized,  fairly  light  cob  indicates 
strength  and  proper  proportion  of  corn  to  cob. 

How  to  See. 

Stop  right  here.  Have  you  been  examining  the  corn  that  you 
have?  If  you  have  you  will  have  discovered  that  to  see  things  on 
the  ear  of  corn  are  not  so  easy,  after  all.  How  can  the  right  esti- 
mate be  placed  on  the  ears? 

1.  Size  of  Ear— This  point  under  "Will  It  Yield?"  is  not  as 
important,  in  one  sense  of  the  term,  as  it  is  later.  Here  the  import- 
ant thing  is  to  notice  whether  the  ear  is  well  balanced,  length  with 
circumference.  The  ear  ought  to  be  well  developed.  That  is  what 
is  meant.  Hold  up  two  ears  and  decide  which  one  has  the  best  size. 
Do  not  give  the  first  place  to  the  biggest  ear.  That  is  not  what  is 
wanted.  If  the  ear  is  big  and  as  well  has  the  proper  proportions, 
that  is  the  ear  to  choose,  and  to  give  the  highest  score. 


128  CORN 

2.  Solidity  or  Heaviness— Of  course  the  best  way  to  tell  this 
is  with  the  scales,  but  where  there  is  much  difference  in  the  weight 
of  the  ears  the  hand  will  be  able  to  tell  which  is  the  heavier  and 
which  as  a  result  ought  to  receive  the  highest  score  on  that  point. 

3.  Depth  of  Kernel— "While  you  can  see  the  depth  of  the  ker- 
nel at  the  butt,  that  view  may  be  misleading.  The  center  kernels 
are  the  ones  to  examine.  They  represent  the  strength  of  the  ear.  If 
they  are  poor  there  is  not  much  reason  to  look  for  good  kernels  else" 
where. 

4.  Cheerfulness — ^Hold  the  ear  in  a  good  light,  and  each  ear, 
one  after  another,  in  that  same  light.  And  then  look  carefully. 
There  are  many  possibilities  for  mistake  in  this  point.  A  slight 
shadow  may  make  an  otherwise  good  ear  appear  as  if  it  were  dull 
and  worthless. 

5.  Size  of  Germs — Do  not  trust  to  the  first  kernel  that  you  ex- 
amine. Look  at  several.  "While  the  outside  appearance  may  be  im- 
portant, and  it  should  not  be  overlooked,  the  depth  of  the  germ 
should  be  examined.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  germ. 
Here  as  elsewhere  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  have  at  hand  a  pen- 
knife. 

6.  Fullness  at  the  Middle — Lay  the  ear  down  on  a  flat  surface. 
Does  it  touch  all  the  way  along.  It  ought  to.  If  there  is  any  place 
that  it  does  not  touch  that  place  ought  to  be  at  either  end,  not  at 
the  middle.  And  yet  there  ought  to  be  no  tapering  towards  the  ends 
of  the  ear, 

7.  Filling  of  the  Butts — There  is  not  much  difficulty  here.  The 
rows  ought  to  come  out  regularly  to  the  end,  and  be  of  good  depth. 
A  glance  will  tell  whether  this  is  true  or  not. 

8.  Filling'  of  the  Tips — Likewise  the  tips  should  be  filled  well 
as  is  consistent  with  a  well  formed  ear  otherwise. 

9.  Space  at  Cob — There  is  only  one  way  of  seeing  this  and  that 
is  to  look.  And  it  requires  careful  looking,  too.  Several  of  the  ker- 
nels must  be  removed.  There  should  be  little  space  between  the 
kernels  near  the  cob, 

10.  Furrows  Between  Rows — This,  of  course,  can  be  told  at  an 
outside  glance,  but  the  entire  ear  should  be  noted. 


CORN  129 

11.  Size,  Density  and  Condition  of  Cob — ^By  looking  at  tlie 
butt  one  may  be  able  to  tell  whether  the  cob  is  of  the  desired  sort 
or  not.  There  is  no  rule  that  can  be.  laid  down  here,  but  after  sev- 
eral cobs  are  examined,  the  student  will  see  a  great  deal  of  differ- 
ence. It  may  be  necessary  in  the  final  analysis  to  break  the  ear  to. 
determine  the  density. 


How  to  Arrange  the  Sample. 

So  far  nothing  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  way  that  the  ten 
ear  sample  should  be  arranged  for  study.  We  said  that  there  should 
be  some  way  of  keeping  the  ears  separate,  such  as  nails  driven  in 
the  table,  or  pieces  of  wood  or  corn  stalks  between  the  ears,  but 
there  is  a  part  that  is  of  greater  importance  than  that.  The  ears 
ought  to  bear  an  individual  number.  You  will  notice  as  you  glance 
over  the  score  card  that  there  are,  at  the  heads  of  the  columns,  num- 
bers. These  numbers  are  intended  to  correspond  with  certain  ears. 
There  are  several  ways  that  this  numbering  may  be  done.  One  way 
is  to  tack  on  the  bottom  of  the  ear  a  piece  of  cardboard  on  which 
there  is  a  number.  Or  a  rubber  band  to  which  is  attached  a  small 
tag  is  another  handy  way.  But  the  point  is,  some  way  should  be 
used  so  there  will  be  no  mix-up  in  the  ears.  Then  the  ears  should 
be  laid  with  the  numbers  running  from  the  left  to  the  right,  thus: 

123456789  10 

and  the  butts  should  be  next  the  body.  Do  not  study  ears  when  the 
tips  are  towards  your  eyes.  If  you  do,  it  will  mean  that  you  will 
get  a  wrong  idea  of  the  shape.  Besides,  there  should  be  some  uni- 
form way  of  doing  this  work.    All  judges  work  in  this  way. 

There  is  a  simple  device  which  combines  all  of  the  suggestions 
that  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  the  cars.  It 
is  a  board  about  a  foot  wide,  on  which  have  been  nailed  small  foot 
strips  of  wood  about  2^/^  or  3  inches  apart.  After  ten  such  places 
have  been  made  on  the  board  you  have  such  a  device  as  will  carry 
easily  the  ten  ears  anywhere  that  you  want  to  do  your  studying.  It 
is  a  great  deal  easier  to  carry  the  corn  to  the  light  than  it  is  to  take 
the  light  to  the  corn. 


130 


CORN 


CORN 


131 


This  gives-a  good,  start  in  the  study  of  corn.-  The  next  paHs  of 
the  score  card  will  "be  taken  up  in  their  order.  It  will  he  noted  that 
some'  of  the  same  individual  points  are  considered  in  the  other  three 
main  divisions,  but  it  is  with  a  different  point  of  view.  .  Just  one 
example  to  show  this :  Size  of  ear  comes  under  both  ''Will  It  Yield?" 
and  "Will  It  Ripen?"  In  the  first  case  the  question  is  not  a  matter 
of  maturity  at  all ;  the  ear  may  be  mature  and  it  may  not ;  what  we 
want  is  a  large,  well  proportioned  ear.  In  the  second  case,  however, 
if  the  ear  is  immature  and  large  the  judge  scores  heavily  on  that 
point  for  the  reason  that  the  larger  the  ear  the  less  likelihood  there 
is  of  it  becoming  mature  in  a  given  growing  season.  So  in  the  first 
instance  we  are  thinking  of  yield  alone,  in  the  second  of  maturity. 
This  same  policy  fits  to  all  other  repetitions  of  the  same  point.  The 
next  main  division  is  ' '  Will  It  Ripen  ? " 

II.    WILL  IT  RIPEN?    25  POINTS 


That  is,  will  it  mature;  will  It  n 
quality? 

pen  every  year;  is 

it  Safe  for  the  locality? 

Will  it  be  of  good 

Perf. 
Score 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

r 

8 

9 

10 

II 

Will  it  Ripen? 

25 

1 

Size  of  Ear                     6 

2 

Depth  of  Kernels          4 

3 

Sappiness                       3 

4 

Ohaffiness                       3 

5 

^tarchiness                     3 

6 

Size  of  Cob                    S 

1 
1 

7 

Plumpness  of  Tips  of     1 
Kernels                        2' 

1 

1           1 

8 

Adherence  of  Chaff  to    1 
Tip  Caps  of  Kernels  l| 

1 

9 

Adherence  of  Tip            | 
Caps  to  Cob                 ll 

1           1 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  one  has  been  marking  in  the  book.  Do 
not  do  it.  You  will  need  the  book  for  reference,  and  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  rule  off  a  sheet  of  paper  with  the  few  figures  that  are  given 
here. 

1.  Size  of  Ear — The  circumference,  to  a  large  extent,  deter- 
mines the  maturity.    The  length,  in  fact  the  entire  size,  is  set  by  the 


132  CORN 

locality  where  the  corn  is  grown.  To  give  an  example  of  the  way 
corn  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  state  as  well  as  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  the  standards  for  Iowa  are  given:  For  the  northern^ 
part  of  the  state  corn  is  required  to  be  8%  to  9^^  inches  long ;  for 
the  central  zone  8%  to  9%  inches;  for  the  southern  section  9  to  10 
inches.  But  the  point  that  holds  everywhere  is  that  the  circumfer- 
ence should  be  about  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  ear.  As  was 
said,  the  maturity  is  easily  seen  in  most  cases  by  the  circumference, 
so  ears  a  trifle  long,  having  a  circumference  of  such  size  that  the  ear 
mature  well,  should  not  be  cut  seriously  for  this  excessive  length. 
Large  ears  showing  signs  of  immaturity  should  be  cut  heavily. 

2.  Depth  of  Kernel — As  a  rule  deep  kernels  require  more  time 
in  which  to  mature  than  shallow  ones,  consequently  the  deep  ker- 
nels in  a  short-season  zone  should  be  cut  more  heavily  than  the  same 
kernel  in  a  district  where  there  is  a  longer  growing  season. 

3.  Sappiness — This  is  easily  told.  Grasp  the  ear  firmly  in  the 
hand.  If  it  gives  much,  as  if  it  were  wet  inside,  it  has  the  quality 
of  sappiness,  which  is  undesirable.  It  indicates  that  the  ear  has  not 
been  freed  of  the  moisture  that  ought  to  have  left  it  by  the  time  of 
maturity.  Besides  this  point  (the  ease  with  which  the  ear  may  be 
twisted),  a  sappy  ear  is  determined  by  the  heaviness  of  the  ear,  and 
the  softness  of  the  grain  and  cob.  If  the  ears  have  been  dried  near 
a  fire  either  intentionally  or  otherwise,  much  reliability  cannot  be 
placed  on  this  point. 

4.  Chaffiness — "When  the  ear  has  dried,  looseness  of  the  ker- 
nels on  the  cob  indicates  chaffiness  and  shows  that  the  kernels  have 
not  been  properly  developed.  Chaffy  kernels  are  often  indicated 
by  an  extremely  pinched  dent  or  much  space  at  the  cob.  Just  take 
your  hand  and  rub  along  the  ear.  If  the  ear  is  very  chaffy  there 
will  be  a  dry  rattling  sound  accompany  the  process. 

5.  Starchiness — This  is  the  point  that  may  be  trusted  implic- 
itly. Starchiness  is  a  condition  of  the  kernel  caused  by  lack  of  de- 
velopment, which  causes  the  whitish,  clouded  appearance  of  the  ker- 
nels of  immature  corn.  It  shows  most  often  and  most  plainly  in  the 
backs  of  the  kernels.  This  indicates  that  the  placement  of  the  food 
material  was  checked  in  the  kernel  before  it  was  complete.  In  other 
words  the  kernel,  and  consequently  the  ear,  was  not  mature. 

6.  Size  of  Cob — Large,  coarse,  pithy  cobs  indicate  that  the  ears 


CORN  133 

are  slow  in  maturing  and  that  they  require  much  time  to  dry  out 
after  they  are  matured. 

7.  Plumpness  of  Tips  of  Kernels — Shrunken  tips  on  the  ker- 
nels indicate  lack  of  development.  They  also  indicate  lack  of  vigor, 
low  proportion  of  corn  to  cob  and  poor  feeding  value. 

8.  Adherence  of  Chaff  to  Tip  Caps  of  Kernels. 

9.  Adherence  of  Tip  Caps  to  Cob — When  the  kernel  is  shelled 
from  the  cob  it  ought  to  separate  distinctly  from  the  cob  and  yet 
not  carry  any  chaff  with  it.    Point  nine  is  the  more  important. 


A  Study  of  the  Kernels. 

By  this  time  the  student  that  has  followed  closely  what  has 
been  said  and  has  looked  at  the  points  mentioned  will  realize  that 
the  most  important  single  part  of  the  ear  is  the  kernel.  And  yet 
that  is  the  one  that  is  so  frequently  overlooked  except  as  it  forms 
the  ear  as  a  whole.    No  greater  mistake  could  be  made. 

The  best  way  to  do  is  to  take  out  two  kernels  from  each  ear 
the  first  time  that  the  ears  are  handled.  Take  these  kernels  about 
one-third  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip.  They  are  the  repre- 
sentative ones.  Lay  the  kernels  out  just  at  the  butt  or  the  tip  of 
the  ear  from  which  they  came.  It  may  be  best  to  lay  one  with  the 
back  up,  the  other  with  the  germ  up.  This  offers  all  features  of  the 
kernel  for  consideration.  But  do  not  trust  to  these  two  kernels  to 
tell  the  whole  story.  Especially  if  the  judging  is  close  there  may 
be  a  mistake.  But  however  that  work  is  done,  study  the  kernel, 
for  that  is  the  part  that  makes  the  ear.  It  is  much  better  to  say  that 
the  kernel  forms  the  ear  than  it  is  to  say  that  the  ear  shapes  the 
kernel. 

The  next  part  of  the  score  card  is  one  that  causes  much  curi- 
osity. How  to  tell  whether  an  ear  will  grow  or  not.  As  we  said  in 
Study  Two  there  is  only  one  way  of  being  absolutely  sure  of  this 
point  and  that  is  to  test  the  ear  in  the  field  or  in  something  that  is 
as  nearly  like  the  field  as  is  possible  to  secure.  But  in  the  kernel  are 
some  pretty  sure  signs  to  follow.  If  they  are  heeded  they  will  guide 
the  farmer  away  from  the  larger  difficulties  in  securing  a  good 
stand. 


134 


CORN 


PLATE  6. — Here  are  some  types  that  will  be  found  everywhere  that  corn  is 
exhibited.  Ear  Number  1  is  good.  Ear  Number  2  tapers  too  much.  It  has 
very  irregular  kernels,  and  the  tip  kernels  are  shallow  and  smooth,  a  sign 
that  the  corn  is  receiving  little  attention  in  its  breeding.  Ear  Number  3 
is  too  large  around  for  its  length.  The  ear  looks  as  if  the  kernels  were 
loose  on  the  cob.  That  would  be  an  indication  of  immaturity.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  ear  would  go  to  support  that  idea  of  immaturity  even 
though  it  were  not  touched  by  the  hand.  Ear  Number  4  is  the  other  ex- 
treme. Probably  it  has  a  low  shelling  percentage.  In  the  extreme  north, 
however,  there  are  corns  like  this  which  are  profitable,  since  the  deeper 
kerneled  varieties  cannot  be  grown.  Ear  Number  5  shows  a  weakness 
just  where  strength  ought  to  be  shown,  at  the  heart  girth.  The  kernels 
are  irregular.  While  the  upper  half  of  the  ear  is  good  as  the  average  the 
lower  part  spoils  the  worth  of  the  ear  for  seed  or  for  show. 


CORN 


135 


III.    WILL  IT  GROW?    25  POINTS 

Thrtt  is,  has  it  vitality;  will  it  germinate;  will  it  all  grow  and  grow  uniformly,  giving  strong 
"vigorous  plants' 


1  Perf. 
IScore 

1      i      2 

:{ 

4      1      5      1      6      1      7 

8     1     9     i     10 

III 

Will  it  Crow?           1   25 

I 

Color  and  Condition  of   i 
Geroj  and  Embryo    10 

2 

Swppiness                       3, 

3 

Chatfiness                       3| 

1             1             1 

4 

Starchiness                     2 

5 

Mouldiness  of  Cob        1 

6 

Plumpness  of  Tips  of 
Kernels                        1 

7 

Size  of  Germs                 1 

8 

Smoothness  of  back 
of  Kernels                   1 

9 

Smoothness  of  Germs   I 

10 

Adherence  of  Chaff  to 
Tip  Caps                       1 

11 

Adherence  of  Tip 
Caps  to  Cob                  1 

1 

1.  Color  and  Condition  of  Germ  and  Embryo— The  germ  is  the 
ivhitish  oval  portion  which  covers  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  one  side 
-of  the  kerneL  The  embryo  is  the  little  sprout  or  chit  which  is  found 
in  the  germ.  A  yellowish  or  brownish  color  of  germ  and  embryo 
usually  indicates  that  the  ear  has  been  wet  while  frozen  before  it 
was  well  dried,  and  that  it  is  dead  or  weakened.  A  large,  soft  em- 
bryo is  likely  to  contain  a  large  amount  of  moisture  and  be  liable 
to  damage  by  freezing.  A  pale  or  shrunken  embryo  indicates  lack 
of  development  and  is  likely  to  produce  a  weak  stalk.  The  germ 
should  be  of  a  light  cream  color,  and  should  be  neither  sappy  nor 
extremely  brittle,  although  in  the  latter  state  there  are  many  ker- 
nels that  will  grow.  To  get  at  the  germ  so  that  you  can  see  all  the 
parts,  take  the  knife  and  cut  off  the  top  layer  of  the  kernel  until 
the  embryo  is  laid  bare.  You  will  then  be  able  to  see  all  parts  of 
the  germ.  At  any  rate  the  germ  must  be  opened.  It  matters  little 
the  method  used. 

2.  happiness — Corn  containing  a  large  amount  of  moisture  is 
likely  to  sprout  if  placed  in  a  warm  room,  or  to  be  killed  by  freez- 
ing if  left  in  a  cold  one. 


136  CORN 

3.  Ohafflness — Chaffiness  caused  by  lack  of  full  development 
indicates  lessened  strength  or  producing  power. 

4.  Starchiness — Shows  vigor  has  been  lessened. 

5.  Mouldiness  of  Cob — Mould  around  the  tips  of  the  kernels 
or  at  the  butt  end  of  the  cob  indicates  that  there  is  an  over-abund- 
ance of  moisture  present  and  that  the  germ  may  be  injured  by 
sprouting  or  freezing.    It  is  well  to  look  carefully  for  this  point. 

6.  Plumpness  of  Tips  of  Kernels — Shrunken  tips  on  the  ker- 
nel are  the  result  of  lack  of  development  and  so  indicate  weakness. 
The  germ  has  been  shriveled  in  the  process. 

7.  Size  of  Germ — Large,  deep  germs  show  strength  and  an 
abundance  of  nourishment  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  germinating 
plant. 

8.  Smoothness  of  Backs  of  Kernels — The  blistering  of  the  back 
of  a  kernel  shows  that  it  has  not  dried  properly  or  that  it  has  been 
frozen  while  filled  with  water,  either  one  of  which  is  likely  to  have 
killed  or  weakened  the  germ. 

9.  Smoothness  of  Germs — The  pulling  up  or  the  wrinkling  of 
the  face  of  the  germ  may  indicate  freezing  or  improper  drying  and 
should  lead  to  a  careful  examination  of  the  embryo  and  the  germ. 
When  there  are  a  large  number  of  samples  and  only  a  few  prizes 
the  judge  will  only  look  at  the  outside  of  the  ear  and  in  a  great 
many  cases  ear  samples  may  be  discarded  for  their  inferior  looks, 
or  dead  appearance. 

10.  Adherence  of  Chaff  to  Tip  Caps. 

11.  Adherence  of  Tip  Caps  to  Cob. 

These  last  two  items  are  true  because  of  the  inter-relation  of 
immaturity  and  weak  germs.    They  should  be  carefully  noted. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  DETAILS. 

By  this  time  the  student  begins«to  realize  that  there  are  all  sorts" 
of  things  to  be  remembered  while  judging  corn,  things  which  are 
not  considered  by  the  average  person,  and  which  are  detailed  in 
their  nature.  But  it  is  the  details  that  win  oat,  never  the  grosser 
facts.  And  so  the  man  who  is  capable  of  looking  after  the  details; 
is  the  one  that  will  win  and  he  is  the  only  one  who  should  take  up-' 


CORN 


137 


tth€  matter  of  com  judging.  In  other  words,  to  be  successful  as  a 
corn  judge  the  man  must  pay  attention  to  small  items,  and  unless 
a  man  is  going  to  be  successful  he  had  better  let  the  whole  matter 
.alone. 

The  next  part  of  the  work  is  that  which  will  be  treated  at 
-greater  length  in  the  last  number  of  the  course.  It  asks  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  much  thought  man  has  given  to  the  corn  in  caring 
tfor  the  crop  from  year  to  year.  Now-a-days  there  is  little  need  for 
the  man  who  will  not  look  out  for  the  yield  in  years  to  come  as  well 
.as  for  ithe  present  crop. 


IV.    DOES  IT  SHOW  IMPROVEMENT?    25  POINTS 

Tbat  is,  has  it  breeding;  has  it  a  distinct  type;  will  it  reproduce  itself;  has  it  several  years  of 
•careful  selection  and  improvement  back  of  it? 


Perf 
Score 

1      1      2 

3 

4         5      16                 i     8     1     9          10 

.IV 

Does  it  Show 
Improvement? 

25 

1      '      1            1            1            1            1 

1 

Puntv  of  Color  of 
Grain  and  Cob          10 

1     1      1     i     !      1 

2 

Shape  of  Ear                 3 

1 

1     1      1     1     1      1 

3 

Shape  of  Kernels          3 

1 

1     1     1     1      1     1 

4 

Uniformity  in  Size          1 
and  Shape  of  Ear       3! 

1     1      1     1     1     1 

5 

Uniformity  in  Size  and 
Shape  of  Kernels       3 

I     i     1     1-     ! 

6 

Character  of  Dent          2 

1 

11          1     ! 

7 

Straightness  and  Ar- 
rangement of  Rows    1 

1      1      1      !      1      ! 

1.  Purity  of  Color  of  Grain  and  Cob— In  color  the  kernels 
•-should  be  free  from  mixture  and  true  to  the  varieties  which  they 
represent.  Variation  in  shade  of  color  such  as  light  or  golden  yel- 
low, pearl  white  or  cream  color  should  be  scored  according  to  the 
variety  characteristics.  For  this  work  the  student  should  look  over 
"the  variety  descriptions  that  were  given  in  the  first  study.  A  white 
cob  in  yellow  corn  or  a  red  cob  in  white  corn  should  disqualify  the 
•ear  unless  such  color  is  a  variety  type  which  is  not  frequent.  Color 
is  a  difficult  point  to  note.  The  ear  should  be  held  in  a  good  light. 
"With  yellow  corn  there  is  little  difficulty  in  noticing  the  white  caps. 
'They  are  signs  of  mixture.  But  in  the  white  corn  mixture  is  shown 
in  a  different  way.  The  sides  of  the  kernels  become  tinged  with 
yellow.    To  see  them  the  judge  must  look  between  the  rows  and  be- 


138 


CORN 


5> 


•?,  oS 


•^si 


o 


i-HM 

O)  o 

s^  ba 

.j3  S 


S  a) 

MX 


Pi  OJ 
c3^ 


m 


«; 


c3 


CORN  139 

tween  all  of  them,  for  each  off-kernel  is  very  objectionable.  It  is 
well  to  hold  the  ear  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  eyes  and  then 
turn  it  slowly  until  a  complete  revolution  has  been  made.  "Whether 
any  other  of  the  facts  regarding  the  purity  of  the  corn  are  noted  or 
not  this  one  should  be,  and  carefully.  It  is  the  first  thing  that  the 
judge  notes,  for  the  reason  that  the  corn  that  has  a  mixture  of 
bloods  is  very  seldom  indeed  a  high  yielder  for  continuous  years. 

2.  Shape  of  Ear — The  shape  should  conform  to  the  variety 
type,  and  yet  all  varieties  are  conforming  to  that  ear  which  is  cylin- 
drical or  nearly  so  in  shape.  At  least,  an  ear  should  be  full  in  the 
middle  and  carry  well  out  to  the  tip.  In  general,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned, the  circumference  should  be  about  three-quarters  of  the 
length.  The  measurement  for  the  circumference  should  be  taken 
about  one-third  the  way  from  the  base  to  the  tip.  There  is  a  dan- 
ger of  getting  the  length  too  great  if  a  tape  line  is  used.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  use  a  rigid  rod  and  cite  the  length. 

3.  Shape  of  Kernel — The  shape  of  the  kernel  should  conform 
to  the  variety  type.  This,  of  course,  would  be  true,  for  it  has  been 
already  said  that  the  shape  of  the  kernel  determiaes  the  shape  of 
the  ear.  The  shape  of  the  kernel  should  be  full.  The  kernels  should 
touch  at  their  edges  for  their  entire  length.  That  will  make  the  ker- 
nels wedge  shaped.  A  rounding  crown  gives  a  smooth  appearance 
and  indicates  that  there  has  been  very  little  breeding. 

4.  TJmformity  in  Size  and  Shape  of  Ears — The  size  and  shape 
of  all  ears  in  the  sample  should  conform  to  the  variety  type  and  be 
uniform  for  all  ears  in  the  sample. 

5.  Uniformity  in  Size  and  Shape  of  Kernels — The  size  and 
shape  of  all  kernels  on  each  ear  and  of  the  kernels  on  all  ears  in  a 
sample  should  conform  to  the  variety  type  and  be  uniform  through- 
out the  sample.  This  will  insure  more  even  stands  and  such  corn 
from  such  seed  will  mature  at  more  nearly  the  same  time  than  if 
uneven  kernels  were  planted.  In  fact,  in  all  kinds  of  plants  as  well 
as  animals,  uniformity  to  a  point  or  to  a  number  of  points  will  in- 
dicate good  breeding. 

6.  Character  of  Dent — The  later  the  variety,  the  deeper  the 
kernel  may  be  and  the  deeper  the  dent  of  the  kernel  usually  is.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  medium  dent  is  the  one  that  usually  yields 


140 


CORN 


the  highest,  other  things  being  equal.    But  of  course-  there  will  be- 
a  difference  in  the  different  varieties  on  this  point. 

7.  Straightness  and  Arrangement  of  Rows — ^The  rows  of 
kernels  should  run  straight  from  butt  to  tip.  Any  twisting  of  rows 
around  the  ear  is  objectionable.  The  arrangement  of  rows  depends 
on  the  variety  type.  For  example:  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  is  dis- 
tinctly paired,  while  Golden  Eagle  is  arranged  in  single  rows. 

THE  CONCLUSION. 

The  four  parts  that  have  been  studied  may  now  be  placed  to- 
gether and  a  summary  made  of  the  whole  card.  The  four  parts  make 
each  individual  ear  score  100,  if  it  is  perfect.  Of  course  there  is  no 
ear  in  your  sample  that  is  perfect,  but  add  iip  the  columns  and  put 
the  total  score  down.  Look  at  the  photographs  of  good  ears  and  see- 
if  you  are  satisfied  with  the  result.  If  you  want  to  place  the  ears 
as  the  card  would  have  them,  then  use  the  space  marked  ''Rank  of 
Ear."  Indicate  the  ear  with  the  highest  score  as  1,  the  one  next 
with  the  number  2,  and  so  on  down  to  the  last,  10,  which  will  have 
the  lowest  score.  The  form  which  will  complete  the  other  parts  of 
the  card  is: 


Perf. 
Score 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Total  Score 

100 

Rank  of  Ear 

A  REVIEW. 


Now  before  anything  else  is  noticed  of  this  work  go  back  and 
review  all  of  the  points  that  have  been  mentioned.  Go  carefully 
over  the  work  already  done,  and  see  if  you  would  make  any  changes. 
Put  a  new  ear  in  the  ten  and  see  what  difference  there  is  between 
that  one  and  the  one  that  it  replaced.  Then  you  will  be  able  to  see 
points  that  you  have  failed  to  see  clearly  before  and  when  you  start 
on  the  variety  study  the  task  will  he  an  easy  one. 


CORN 
For  Variety  Study  Only. 


141 


In  some  sections  there  is  so  mucli  importance  placed  on  thie 
merits  of  a  variety  that  there  is  often  need  of  having  the  various 
points  for  the  variety  differences  well  in  mind.  If  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  a  score  where  the  variety  characteristics  are  the  only  ones 
to  be  considered  the  following  card  will  be  used  to  advantage : 


Traeness  to  Type,  or 
Breed  Characteristics 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

(1)  Shape  of  ear 

25 

(2)  Shape  of  kernel 

25 

(3)  Purity  of  color  of 
cob 

10 

(4)  Uniformity  in  size 
and  shape  of  kernel 

10 

<5)  Purity  of  color  of 
grain 

10 

(6)  Straightness  of 
rows 

5 

(7)  Arrangement  of 
rows 

5 

8)  Filling  of  tips 

5 

(9)  Filling  of  butts 

5 

Total    -    ^    100 

VARIETY  STANDARDS 

NAME  OF  VARIETY 


Northern  Section  Central  Section  Southern  Section 


142 


CORN 


1-1  a>  fj  4). 

-H,CJ  O 

CD        /-<*^ 
to  (U     _.rt 

„  S  "2  JI 

f-i  oj  cS  »: 
oj  IL,     •-; 


03  ^ 


(P 


to  oD<l)  !-< 


to 


0)     .CJ 


o  o  S, 


ODc 


o'~*  aj 


■^^': 


3bDgg 

■4^1-1    ;^    O 

Si  o  o  o 

Sl^Sto 

•^':3  ®  o3 
Eh  ra^  « 
'-    p+j 

O  IS  IS 
^X!  O  f- 

2bJ0Sm 

^  5  <"  2 

rai     •-^ 
o  g  !-,  °  C 

g  <u  o  o  a) 

h:] 

ft 


CORN  143 

It  is  well  to  have  the  different  standards  for  the  varieties  being 
studied  right  on  the  paper  where  the  work  is  being  done.  That  is 
the  purpose  of  the  bottom  part  of  this  card.  Most  states  that  grow 
a  great  deal  of  dent  corn  have  the  state  divided  into  at  least  three 
sections.  But  those  may  be  changed  from  time  to  time  and  when 
they  are  the  card  should  be  made  to  fit  the  conditions. 


No  Fixed  Standards. 

It  might  be  said  right  here,  for  fear  that  some  one  will  get  the 
wrong  impression,  that  there  is  no  set  of  rules  that  will  apply  in  all 
sections  of  the  United  States.  In  the  first  place  all  sections  of  the 
country  do  not  raise  dent  corn.  We  have  been  talking  for  the  most 
part  of  that  kind,  for  that  is  the  corn  that  is  of  the  greatest  commer- 
cial importance,  tak^  the  country  over.  But  the  same  things  that 
have  been  said  in  this  study  may  be  applied  with  modifications  to 
the  sections  where  dent  corn  is  not  raised,  but  where  flint  corn,  or 
hominy  corn,  or  starch  corn  is  found.  The  judge  should  always  re- 
member the  use  to  which  the  corn  is  to  be  put. 

For  the  most  part  the  shows  of  the  country  exhibit  corn  that  is 
intended  for  seed.  As  such  it  ought  to  be  able  to  grow.  Every  ear 
that  will  not  germinate  should  be  discarded.  That  seems  severe,  but 
of  what  use  would  dead  corn  be  if  it  were  put  in  the  field  at  plant- 
ing time?  If  the  corn  is  for  feed,  the  shelling  percentage  would 
have  a  great  influence.  Flint  corn  would  be  judged  according  to  the 
type  required;  the  same  general  rules  of  breeding  would  hold  there 
as  with  dent  corn.  And  so  the  judge  must  adapt  himself  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  is  required  to  work. 


Scdre  Sometimes  Demanded. 

As  we  have  said,  there  is  really  no  exact  way,  all  conditions 
considered,  for  the  placement  of  corn  under  the  score  card  scheme. 
But  there  are  often  communities  which  demand  that  a  card  be  used. 
It  then  becomes  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  judge  to  score  the  samples 
as  well  as  to  place  them.  The  most  of  the  samples  are  ten-ear  in 
size.    That  calls  for  a  different  card  than  the  long  one  used  in  this 


144 


CORN 


stiidy  thus  far.  And  so  all  of  the  states  have  adopted  ten-ear  score 
cards,  by  means  of  which  the  ten-ear  samples  may  be  scored  and  very 
frequently  with  much  accuracy.  In  rapidly  studying  a  sample  of 
ten  ears  the  student  should  use  this  card.  Of  course,  now  we  are 
considering  the  ten-ear  samples.  The  work  before  this  has  been 
with  the  single  ear  in  mind.  Note  this  card  and  see  how  carefully 
all  of  the  points  are  reviewed.  It  is  the  one  now  in  use  in  Iowa,  but 
the  other  corn  growing  states  have  similar  ones.  • 


SCALE  OP  POINTS 

NO.  OF  SAMPLE 

5 

9 

14 

6 

et 

0. 

3     Purity  (a)  Kernel 

(b)  Cob 

in       "Rnftd                                                                   

11     Tips 

13.    Proportion  Shelled  Corn 

TOTAL                                      

CORN  145 


STANDARD     J     Length 

OF  /     Circiimference , 

VARIETY       /     Proportion  of  Shelled  Com 

Name  of  Variety 

Date. 

Name 


How  to  Apply  the  Score  Card. 

1.  Uniformity  and  Type  (10)— All  the  ears  of  an  exhibit 
should,  conform  to  the  variety  or  the  prevailing  type,  and  should  be 
■uniform  in  size,  shape,  color  and  indentation.  For  each  ear  differ- 
ing in  size,  shape,  color  or  indentation,  from  the  variety  type,  cut 
from  one-fourth  to  one  point. 

2.  Maturity  and  Market  Condition  (15)— Ears  should  be  well 
matured,  firm  and  dry.  Each  ear  showing  a  marked  degree  of  loose- 
ness of  kernels  should  be  cut  not  to  exceed  one  and  one-half  points. 
For  ears  less  imperfect  in  this  respect,  a  cut  may  be  made  varying 
from  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-fourth  points.  Ears  showing  rotten 
spots  or  injuries  of  other  sorts  should  be  cut  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  point  each.  One  dead  ear  shall  be  cut  five  points.  Two  dead 
ears  shall  bar  the  exhibit. 

3.  Purity-Kernel  (5)— Kernels  should  be  free  from  mixture 
with  corn  of  opposite  color.  Mixture  in  yellow  corn  is  shown  on 
caps  of  kernels ;  in  white  corn,  on  the  sides.  For  each  mixed  kernel 
on  the  ear,  cut  two-tenths  of  a  point.  Should  there  be  more  than 
twenty-five  mixed  kernels  and  less  than  fifty,  deduct  five  points  from 
the  total  score.  For  fifty  to  one  hundred  mixed  kernels,  deduct  ten 
points.    For  greater  mixture  the  sample  shall  be  barred. 

Purity-Cob  (5) — Cobs  should  be  of  one  color;  in  yellow,  corn, 
usually  red ;  and  in  white  corn,  white.  For  pink  cobs,  cut  one-fourth 
to  one-half  points  for  each,  according  to  shade.  For  each  cob  of  op- 
posite color,  a  cut  of  five  points  shall  be  made. 


146 


CORN 


PLiATB  9. — The  larger  lot  consists  of  kernels.  They  are  graded  for  the  planter. 
The  small  is  the  culls.  The  other  lot  is  made  up  of  kernels  graded.  The 
attempt  is  to  get  all  of  the  kernels  on  each  ear  as  nearly  alike  as  possible 
so  that  the  lot  which  in  this  photograph  is  the  smallest  shall  be  as  nearly 
nothing  as  possible.     That  calls  for  uniformity. 


CORN  147 

4.  Shape  of  Ear  (10) — Ears  should  be  as  nearly  cylindrical  as 
possible  and  have  straight  rows  rimning  from  butt  to  tip.  These 
characteristics  usually  indicate  a  high  per  cent,  of  corn  to  cob,  and 
a  large  number  of  kernels  of  uniform  size  and  shape  for  planting. 
Cut  one-fourth  to  one  point  for  each  ear  that  tapers  too  greatly  or 
in  which  rows  are  twisted  or  irregular. 

5.  Length  (10) — Add  together  the  deficiency  and  excess  in 
length  of  all  ears  not  conforming  to  the  standard  for  the  variety  and 
for  each  inch  thus  obtained,  cut  one  point.  Should  the  deficiency  ex- 
ceed ten  inches  a  cut  of  two  points  for  each  additional  inch  should 
be  made  on  the  total  score. 

6.  Circumference  (5) — The  deficiency  and  excess  in  circum- 
ference (measured  one-third  the  distance  from  butt  to  tip)  of  all 
ears  not  conforming  to  the  standard  of  the  variety  shall  be  added 
together  and  for  each  inch  thus  obtained,  a  cut  of  one-half  point 
shall  be  made. 

7.  Shape  of  Kernel  (5) — The  ideal  kernel  is  slightly  wedge 
shaped,  but  not  pointed.  The  length  is,  approximately,  one  and  one- 
half  times  as  great  as  the  width  at  the  widest  part.  The  thickness  of 
the  kernel  should  be  carried  well  down  to  the  tip.  For  each  ear 
showing  poor  shape,  cut  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  point. 

8.  Uniformity  of  Kernel  (5) — The  kernels  from  the  different 
ears  should  be  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  For  each  ear  with  kernels 
differing  from  the  prevailing  type,  cut  from  one-fourth  to  one-half 
point.    The  individual  kernels  on  each  ear  should  also  be  uniform. 

9.  Character  of  the  Germ  (10) — The  germ  should  be  large, 
full,  smooth  and  bright,  not  blistered,  shriveled  or  discolored.  When 
broken,  it  should  show  a  fresh,  oily  appearance.  Cut  not  more  than 
one  point  for  each  ear  showing  inferior  germs. 

10.  Butt  (5) — The  ideal  ear  should  have  a  butt  well  rounded 
out,  with  deep  kernels  spaced  in  regular  rows,  solidly  and  evenly 
compacted  around  a  clean,  cup  shaped  cavity.  The  cavity  should 
indicate  a  medium  or  small  shank. 

11.  Tips  (5) — The  tips  of  the  ear  should  not  be  too  tapering 
and  should  be  filled  out  to  the  ends  with  deep  kernels  in  regular 
rows.  Tip  kernels  should  not  be  glistening  and  shot  shaped.  The 
ideal  tip  is  completely  covered,  but  if  kernels  are  deep  and  regular 


148  CORN 

to  the  end  of  the  cob  no  cut  need  be  made.    Cut  not  to  exceed  one 
half  point  for  each  defective  tip,  according  to  judgment. 

12.  Space  Between  Rows.  (5) — There  should  be  no  open  space 
between  the  rows  of  kernels,  nor  between  the  kernels  in  the  row, 
either  at  the  crown  or  at  the  cob.  Cut  not  to  exceed  one-half  point 
for  each  ear  seriously  defective  in  this  respect. 

13.  Proportion  of  Shelled  Corn  (5) — This  varies  with  varieties 
and  is  largely  influenced  by  the  relative  depth  of  kernel  and  size  of 
cob.  The  cob  should  be  medium,  with  diameter  about  twice  the 
depth  of  the  kernel.  Ears  indicating  a  relatively  low  per  cent  of 
shelled  corn  should  be  cut  according  to  judgment  from  one-fourth  to- 
one-half  point  each.  When  actual  shelling  cannot  take  place,  esti- 
mate is  made  upon  the  shape,  depth  and  position  of  kernels,  size  of 
cob,  filling  at  the  ends,  and  shape  of  the  ear.  In  determining  the  pro- 
portion of  shelled  corn  to  ear  weigh  each  alternate  ear  in  the  ex- 
hibit. Shell  and  weigh  the  cobs  and  subtract  this  from  the  weight 
of  the  ears,  to  secure  the  weight  of  the  corn.  Divide  the  weight  of 
corn  by  the  total  weight  of  ears  to  secure  the  per  cent  shelled  corn. 
For  each  per  cent  short  of  the  standard  of  the  variety,  one  point  cut 
shall  be  made. 

In  following  the  above  rules  do  not  get  confused.  Go  slowly,, 
take  each  point  at  a  time,  and  soon  the  entire  card  will  be  plain. 
There  is  a  reason  for  each  statement,  and  that  reason  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  we  are  attempting  to  get  for  the  farmers  everywhere  more 
good  corn  per  acre.  See  if  you  can  figure  out  how  each  point  aims 
at  that  end. 


How  to  Judge  a  Show 

Now  if  you  have  mastered  all  of  the  ideas  that  have  been  pre^ 
sented  you  are  ready  to  judge  a  show.  It  may  be  that  you  will  not 
have  the  opportunity.  Your  greatest  benefit  will  come  in  the  use 
to  which  you  put  the  ideas  on  the  home  farm.  But  you  should  have 
some  idea  of  how  to  go  about  it,  at  any  rate. 

You  have  been  at  some  show  or  other  at  some  time  in  your  life. 
I  have  no  doubt  that  you  have  seen  a  great  many  shows,  and  perhaps 
a  large  number  of  those  have  been  corn  exhibitions.  If  so,  you  know 
how  the  samples  are  arranged.    There  are  samples  of  single  ears,  of 


CORN  149 

ten  ears,  of  thirty  ears,  of  bushels.  These  ought  and  probably  will 
be  arranged  in  a  convenient  place  for  the  spectators,  but  that  does 
not  mean  that  they  will  be  in  a  convenient  place  for  the  judge. 

So  the  first  thing  for  the  judge  to  do  is  to  demand  a  place  well 
lighted,  with  a  table  on  which  the  corn  may  be  laid.  It  is  one  thing 
to  demand  and  it  is  quite  another  thing  to  get  what  you  are  asking 
for.  So  in  the  case  you  demand  a  place  where  the  corn  will  be  in  the 
light  and  where  you  will  be  alone  with  it,  do  not  expect  it.  If  you 
get  it,  be  very  thankful.  If  you  do  not,  just  be  resigned  and  do  the 
best  you  can. 

Various  classes  will  be  arranged.  Take  these  one  at  a  time.  Do 
not  judge  single  ears  for  a  time  and  then  turn  to  bushel  samples.  If 
you  start  with  the  singles  keep  with  them  until  you  are  through  with 
them.  Then  take  up  what  you  find  to  be  most  convenient  and  finish 
that.  Answer  questions  where  that  is  convenient  but  remember  that 
your  business  is  to  judge  the  corn.  Do  not  pay  attention  to  the  band 
that  is  playing  on  the  street  comer,  nor  the  roosters  that  are  crowing 
near  your  elbows.  Judge  the  corn  while  you  are  at  the  work  and 
then  you  can  play. 


How  to  Conduct  a  Show. 

But  the  work  of  the  judge  would  be  much  easier  in  most  cases  if 
the  men  who  had  charge  of  the  show  had  properly  taken  care  of  the 
preliminaries.  And  so  a  word  here  in  regard  to  the  methods  used 
in  preparing  for  the  show  will  be  in  place. 

To  begin  with,  there  must  be  interest  in  the  show  before  it  is 
started.  So  there  must  be  some  one  who  will  take  the  responsibility 
of  management.  There  are  many  ways  that  an  organization  may  be 
effected;  in  fact  there  may  be  no  permanent  organization.  However, 
it  is  best  to  have  a  permanent  body  that  will  carry  on  the  show  each 
year  or  two  in  order  to  compare  the  corn  of  one  year  with  another.  If 
there  is  an  organization,  the  officers  of  it  will,  of  course,  be  respons- 
ible for  the  management.  And  their  first  duty  is  to  get  enthusiasm 
instilled  in  all  the  farmers  and  in  all  of  the  town  folks  that  have 
gumption.  The  rest  need  not  apply.  How  to  do  this  is  a  question. 
There  are  no  ways  that  are  successful  in  all  places.  If  at  all  possible 
get  everybody  financially  interested.    Let  the  merchant  offer  prizes 


150 


CORN 


;9    . 


CORN  151: 

of  money  and  of  goods.  Money  is  much  tHe  best.  Then  give  him, 
some  free  advertising.  Do  it  right  too.  Do  not  try  to  save  money, 
and  forget  all  else.  You  always  lose  by  it.  Make  the  show  worth 
while.  The  farmers  who  have  not  noticed  the  matter  during  the  first 
few  newspaper  announcements  that  were  made  will  come  around 
when  they  see  that  there  is  money  in  it.  And  then  each  one  always 
has  the  hope  that  he  may  beat  neighbor  Jones  who.  has  already  enter- 
ed some  corn.  If  advertising  is  done  unstintingly  there  will  be  in- 
terest unless  the  county  is  ''clear  dead." 

Prizes  of  this  sort  will  mean  a  good  many  samples  of  corn.  The 
show  will  be  properly  divided  into  classes.  "We  will  say  that  the 
county  is  the  territory  concerned.  Then  it  will  be  divided  perhaps 
as  follows  : 

1.    Northern  Part  of  County. 

Class  A Yellow  Corn — ten  ears. 

Class  B  White  Corn — ten  ears. 

Class  C Mixed  Corn — ten  ears. 

2.     Central  Part  of  County. 

(Same  as  North.)  --  .      ' 

3.    Southern  Part  of  County. 

(Same  as  North.) 

That  makes  nine  classes.  Probably  besides  this  the  single  ear 
classes  should  be  made.  But  the  point  is  that  there  ought  to  be  a 
good  classification.  Then  no  one  from  the  part  of  the  county  where 
it  is  impossible  to  grow  large  corn  will  be  out  of  sorts  at  the  manage- 
ment because  their  corn  was  put  up  against  the  corn  from  the  ideal 
section.    And  besides  that,  it  aids  the  judge  in  his  work. 

After  the  classification  has  been  decided  upon  there  should  be 
some  definite  date  set  for  the  entering  of  the  corn.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  the  corn  could  not  be  in,  a  week  or  ten  days  before  the  show.' 
A  date  should  be  fixed  and  then  held.  That  is  if  October  30  be  the 
date  when  corn  is  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  secretary  of  the  show  that 
should  be  definite.  No  corn  should  be  accepted  after  that  date.  That 
may  seem  inconvenient,  but  there  are  all  sorts  of  ways  of  getting  the:^ 
corn  in  if  there  is  a  will  to  hold  up  to  a  set  of  rules.  Of  course  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  the  rules  published  quite  widely.  Together  witlk 


152  CORN 

the  date  should  be  named  the  place.  The  old  fashioned  idea  that  the 
corn  could  be  left  anywhere  in  town,  just  so  that  on  the  day  it  was 
taken  to  the  place  of  exhibit,  is  passed.  The  corn  should  be  at  a 
definite  place  at  a  definite  time.  Nothing  hinders  the  judge  so  much 
as  to  have  samples  continually  being  entered  after  the  judging  has 
commenced. 

The  arrangement  of  the  samples  in  the  room  is  also  of  great  im- 
portance. Be  sure  that  the  room  is  well  lighted.  No  person  can  tell 
good  from  bad  corn  in  a  poorly  or  artificially  lighted  room.  Take 
a  room  in  the  hardware  store,  or  in  the  grocery,  or  above  the  butcher 
shop,  any  place  providing  it  has  good  light.  Then  have  the  samples 
laid  out.  Boards  laid  across  wooden  horses  make  a  fine  table  for 
such  work  as  this.  The  ten  ear  samples  should  be  laid  out  neatly 
with  the  tips  of  the  ears  to  the  top,  or  in  other  words  away  from  the 
spectator.  The  ten  ear  samples  may  be  separated  one  from  the  other 
by  nails  driven  into  the  boards.  Fixed  in  this  way  the  ears  are 
easily  seen  by  the  judge. 

A  room  with  the  samples  neatly  arranged,  and  with  some  local 
decorations  will  attract  visitors  and  there  will  be  much  profit  to  all 
concerned. 

The  judge  will  be  guided  by  numbers  on  the  ears  and  samples. 
These  numbers  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  secretary  of  the  show. 
After  all  the  work  is  done  the  prizes  are  awarded  by  number  by  the 
judge.  The  secretary  locates  the  name  of  the  individual  and  the 
premium  is  sent. 

Studying  by  Newer  Methods. 

There  is  another  method  of  studying  corn  that  might  be  well 
for  us  to  consider  at  this  time  since  we  have  been  away  from  the 
actual  subject  of  the  study  for  a  little  while.  It  is  known  as  the 
COMPARISON  METHOD.  That  is  there  are  no  figures  to  be  used 
at  all.  The  various  points  of  the  ear  are  noted  as  they  compare  to 
the  same  points  of  another  ear.  This  system  usually  uses  five  ears  for 
study  rather  than  ten.  Ear  one  is  compared  with  ear  two,  two  with 
three,  three  with  four,  and  four  with  five.  In  other  words  the  ears 
are  placed  at  the  start  without  reference  to  score  card  figures  at  all. 
The  following  sheet  which  is  the  common  one  used  will  bring  out 
that  point : 


CORN 


153 


COBN— Comparisorr  Sheet 


student's  Hqoiv 


Name  of  Variety^ 


Ho.  of  Sample... 


Rank  the  etn  of  the  simple  or  Ibe  stveni  exhibits  iccording  to  the  qtnUties  nKiriioned  below. 


FIRST 

SECOND 

THIRD 

FOURTH 

FIFTH 

1     Is  it  adapted? 

U  ilie  ear  of  proper  size  to  grow  under  your  soil  and 

4 

3 

1 

5 

2 

Will  it  ripen  as  judged  by  the  hardness  and  dryness 

^ 

2    WUi  it  yield? 

Weight  olear    

^ 

¥ 

Depth  of  kernels ...... 

Space  between  kernels 

^ 

¥ 

^ 

3    Will  it  grow? 

¥ 

V 

Brightness  Of  color     

/A 

4 

^ 

^ 

^ 

¥- 

V- 

4    Does  it  show  improvement? 

(Has  it  a  distinct  type?    Is  it  the  right  type?    Does  it 
show  selection  and  breeding?)    Is  it  uniform  in 

V- 

^ 

Shape  of  ear,  . 

^ 

y 

¥ 

ih 

It  will  be  noticed  by  the  outline  that  ear  4  is  first  in  the  point  of 
size  under  ''It  is  adapted,"  ear  3  is  second,ear  1  is  third,  and  so  on. 
After  all  of  the  points  are  covered  the  student  can  easily  get  the  best 
ears  picked  out  for  if  ear  4  appeared  as  it  does  in  the  outline  shown, 
there  would  be  no  question  as  to  it  for  the  first  place  among  the  five 
ears.  It  would  be  difficult  to  handle  ten  ear  samples  with  this 
method. 


154 


CORN 


PLATE  11. — Here  are  three  ten-ear  samples  that  have  desirable  variety  char- 
acteristics. The  top  lot  is  a  southern  type  of  Reid's  Yellow  Dent.  Can  you 
place  the  middle  ten  ears  as  to  variety?  The  lower  lot  is  a  local  type  of 
yellow  corn  grown  in  Indiana. 


CORN  155 

Placingf  Corn. 

All  that  has  been  said  and  all  that  has  been  done  by  the  student 
up  to  this  place  has  been  done  with  the  object  in  mind  of  familiariz- 
ing him  with  the  details  of  corn — the  ear  as  it  is  usually  exhibited. 
But  the  score  card  and  the  written  sheet  must  be  thrown  away  when 
the  practical,  workable  times  come.  That  demands  a  quick  knowledge 
of  every  point  so  that  a  decision  can  be  placed  on  the  ear,  not  on  any 
one  point  about  that  ear.  "We  call  that  work  "placing  corn."  At 
such  a  time  there  is  no  one  to  help  out,  the  judge  is  thrown  upon  his 
own  responsibility  and  knowledge. 

The  best  method  is  to  discard  those  ears  or  samples  that  show 
no  signs  of  making  the  first  place.  Leave  only  the  first  few  best  ones 
in  the  race.  A  hasty  glance  will  many  times  locate  the  bad  ones.  Put 
the  time  that  you  have  on  the  ears  or  samples  that  are  close  in  the 
race.  Be  sure  that  you  are  accurate.  Do  not  make  any  guesses. 
Then,  having  placed  your  decision,  be  ready  to  stand  back  of  it.  Of 
course  the  stubborn  man  is  not  what  is  wanted,  but  the  man  who 
places  on  reason  consequently  has  a  right  to  be  firm. 

There  may  come  a  time  when  an  explanation  is  asked.  Always 
give  it.  This  takes  training  and  familiarity  with  the  subject.  But 
the  judge  ought  to  be  able  to  express  himself  on  the  things  over 
which  he  has  just  gone.  If  he  is,  the  auditors  cannot  but  be  satisfied 
for  he  has  given  to  them  reasons  which  are  satisfactory  to  himself. 


Judging  Contests. 

Over  the  country  there  is  a  gradually  enlarging  fancy  for  the 
corn  judging  contest.  In  this  the  boys  and  the  girls  are  trained  to 
judge  corn  and  give  their  reasons  for  the  placement.  Prizes  are 
usually  awarded  for  the  best  work  done.  In  the  awarding  of  these 
prizes  the  statement  made  by  the  contestants  in  regard  to  the  merits 
and  demerits  of  the  corn  at  hand  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
winning.  The  object  is  to  give  the  reasons  quickly,  yet  completely. 
The  following  are  the  ordinary  methods  for  oral  reasons  on  place- 
ments: 


156  CORN 

Methods  of  Giving:  Oral  Reasons. 

This  is  a  sample  of  (the  variety  name)  Corn.  I  place  this  sample 
2-5-3-4-1. 

Ear  No.  2  is  placed  over  ear  No.  5  in  general  appearance,  breed 
type,  and  shelling  percentage.  In  general  appearance  No.  2  excels 
No.  5  because  it  is  a  more  symmetrical,  more  vigorous,  productive 
looking  ear,  carrying  its  circumference  more  uniformly  to  the  tip, 
and  having  a  slight  advantage  in  constitution  as  is  shown  by  its 
greater  circumference.  Ear  No.  2  also  has  an  advantage  in  filling 
of  butt  and  tip.  In  breed  type  No.  2  is  placed  over  No.  5  because  of 
a  slight  advantage  in  shape  of  ear,  superior  color  of  grain  and  of  cob, 
and  an  advantage  in  shape  of  kernels.  Ear  No.  2  excels  No.  5  in 
uniformity  and  regularity  of  kernels. 

No.  5  is  placed  over  No.  3  in  general  appearance,  type  and  shell- 
ing percentage.  No.  5  has  an  advantage  in.  general  appearance,  be- 
cause of  size,  stronger  middle  and  superior  filling  of  butt  and  tip. 
In  type  No.  5  has  the  more  characteristic  (variety)  dent,  conforms 
more  nearly  to  the  type  in  shape  of  kernel,  and  excels  in  straight- 
ness  and  pairing  of  rows.  No.  5  has  a  decided  advantage  over  No.  3 
in  shelling  percentage  because  of  deeper  kernel,  and  smaller  cob. 
Therefore  No.  5  is  placed  over  No.  3  in  general  appearance,  breed 
type  and  shelling  percentage. 

Between  ears  No.  3  and  No.  4  it  is  very  close.  They  are  about 
equal  in  general  appearance,  breed  type  and  in  size.  However,  I 
prefer  No.  3  because  it  is  more  mature  as  is  shown  by  the  chaffy 
starchy  kernels  of  No.  4.  No.  4  also  has  a  few  blistered  kernels  and 
is  inclined  to  be  a  little  sappy. 

Ear  No.  4  is  placed  over  ear  No.  1  in  breed  type,  and  so  on. 

Note.  In  giving  reasons  system  and  method  are  necessary,  but 
mechanical  order  should  be  avoided.  The  method  will  depend  upon 
the  originality  and  ingenuity  of  the  judge  and  must  vary  with  the 
kind  of  sample.  The  points  to  be  considered  are  arbitrary,  but  in 
the  systems  which  have  been  used  here  at  Ames,  and  which  are  the 
basis  for  the  system  given  are  as  follows : — 

General  appearance,  breed  type,  size,  maturity,  uniformity  and 
regularity  of  kernels,  shelling  percentage. 


CORN  157 

Where  there  is  to  be  a  great  deal  of  judging  and  the  written 
reasons  are  desired  the  following  blank  is  most  convenient : 


Placing  of  Sample 
.First ;  Second ;   Third ;   Fourth ; Fifth 


Reasons 

.  First  is  placed  over Second  because 


,  i^. 


Second  is  placed  over Third  because 


Third  is  placed  over .Fifth  because 


.Fourth  is  placed  over Fifth  because 


158  CORN 

The  Plant  Not  to  be  Neglected. 

So  far  all  of  tlie  talk  and  all  of  tlie  efforts  have  been  on  the  ear 
itself,  so  that  there  may  be  some  one  who  has  forgotten  that  there 
is  another  part  of  the  corn  industry  just  as  important.  It  is  the 
plant  that  produces  the  ear.  Study  the  corn  in  the  field.  That  is 
the  only  way  to  learn  it.  "We  must  pay  some  attention  to  the  corn 
plant. 

You  know  what  the  score  card  is,  that  is,  what  it  means  and 
how  it  should  be  used.  So  you  will  look  down  the  columns  of  this 
new  card  with  much  interest. 


CORN 


159 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN  PLANT 

-Same  of  Scoeee Date 

Row  No. Vabieiv ■_ 


1 

2 

^ 

• 

• 

6 

' 

« 

« 

10 

1.    ROOTS                                         .     5 

1 

II.    STALK                                                20 
A.    Stem 

1.    Color 

15 

5 

2.    Height 

3 

'  3.    Proportion 

C 

4.    Straightneas 

2 

0.    Size  ol  Nodes 

1 

G.    Length  of  Internodes 

1 

■   B.    LcAvcs 

5 

1.    Color 

2 

2.    Size 

1 

3.     Number 

1 

4.    Condition 

1 

111.    TILLERS  OR  SUCKERS                        5 

i      5 

IV.    EAR                                                  55 
A.    In  Cue  of  One  Ear 

I-.    Height 

" 

5 

— 

— 

^ 

— 

— 

2.    Length  and  Size  of  Shank 

5 

3.    Position 

5 

4.     Size 

20 

1 

5.    Shape 

10 

1 

6.    Filling  of  1 

5 

1 

7.    Covering  of  Tip 

6 

_ 

1 B.    In  Cue  ol  Two  Eire 

flerjer) 
1.    Height 

55 
35 

3 

2.    Length  and  Size  ol  Slinnk 

3 

3.    Position 

3 

- 

- 

- 

- 

4.    Size 

15 

- 

- 

5.    Shape 

6 

(J.    fining  of  Tip 

3 

7.    Covering  of  Tip 

3 

(Smaller) 
1.    Height 

20 

1 

- 

- 

- 

2.    Length  and  Size  of  Shank 

1 

:).    Position 

1 

4.    Size 

10 

.5.    Shape 

3 

- 

~ 

- 

- 

B.    Filling  of  Tip 

2 

7.    Covering  of  Tip 

2 

V.    TASSEl                                                 5 
1.    Size 

3 

- 

2.   .Shape 

2 

VI.    FREEDOM  FROM  DISEASE  AND       10 
INSECT  INJURIES 

10 

Note.    1.    A  ecoreof  zei 
II.     A  Btalk  need 

particular  heading 


any  one  of  the  six  main  headings  disqualilieB  the  stalk. 

be  deficient  in  all  points  mentioned  under  the  reapective  headingd  to  score 


160 


CORN 


CORN  161 


The  explanation  of  these  points  in  judging  corn  is  very  inter- 
■esting.    It  reveals  to  anyone  the  largeness  of  the  subject. 


I.  ROOTS. 

It  would  seem  that  more  than  five  points  should  be  allowed  for 
TOots  because  without  sufficient  root  development  a  corn  plant  is 
worthless  from  the  standpoint  of  selection  and  breeding.  In  judg- 
ing however,  the  roots  are  so  hidden  that  no  estimate  can  be  made 
AS  to  their  extent  and  development  by  the  eye.  On  the  other  hand, 
observe  the  brace-roots  closely.  Try  the  stalk  to  see  how  firmly  it  is 
£xed  in  its  place. 

II.  STALK. 
A.  Stem. 

1.  Color — Color  indicates  vigor  or  the  lack  of  it.  The  dark 
green  displayed  in  a  growing  stem  is  indicative  of  healthy  assimila- 
tion of  plant  food.  Stems  showing  streaks  of  red  or  yellow  should 
be  discriminated  against. 

2.  Height — Height  must  be  judged  from  the  variety  type.  The 
.season  and  length  of  time  required  for  maturing  should  be  consid- 
ered. If  the  judging  is  done  later  in  the  season  and  the  stalk  shows 
by  its  excessive  height  that  it  will  never  mature,  then  it  should  be 
scored  closely.  A  tall  growing  stalk  of  Legal  Tender  or  Eeid's  Yel- 
low Dent  in  Southern  Iowa  is  in  keeping  with  the  season.  However, 
in  the  Northern  Section  a  decrease  in  stature  is  necessary.  The  Silver 
Xing,  a  variety-  originated  in  Northern  Iowa,  is  short  growing.  It 
will  be  found  that  hereafter  shorter  stalks  will  be  selected  than 
formerly. 

3.  Proportion — It  is  essential,  at  present  that  a  corn  stalk  be 
well  proportioned.  With  increased  size  of  ear  which  is  now  being 
produced  the  stem  below  must  be  correspondingly  larger  and 
stronger.  To  accomplish  this  end  the  distance  below  the  ear  will 
necessarily  be  shorter.  Above  the  ear  only  fair  length  is  required  to 
lift  the  tassels  to  the  winds.  Although  stockiness  and  strength  are 
sought  in  this  part  also,  a  gradual  tapering  from  the  ear  upwards, 
lends  symmetry  to  the  entire  stalk. 


162  CORN 

4.  Straightness — A  straight  stalk  indicates  strength  and  rig- 
idity of  the  cellular  structure  within.  Any  bending  or  bowed  tend- 
ency should  be  discriminated  against,  because  indicating  injury  dur- 
ing cultivation  or  the  result  of  ravages  of  the  Corn  Root  worm.  A 
leaning  effect  shows  that  the  corn  is  too  heavy  for  the  stalk.  Broken 
stalks  are  disqualified  entirely,  unless  acceptable  causes  can  be  as- 
signed of  which  wind  is  not  one.  .     - 

5.  Size  of  Nodes — ^Large  nodes  or  joints  which  stand  out  plain- 
ly, indicate  strong  couplings  which  are  necessary  to  withstand  the 
winds.  The  size  of  the  nodes  near  the  base  of  the  stalk  should  be 
a  subject  of  close  observation  and  study.  Nodes  should  afford  suf- 
ficient surface  for  the  attachment  and  growth  of  the  leaf-sheath. 

6.  Length  of  Internodes — The  lower  internodes  should  be  very 
short  to  give  the  whole  stem  strength  and  resisting  power.  Quite- 
often  the  lower  internodes  are  caused  to  grow  too  long  because  of 
insufficient  light  when  the  plant  was  very  young,  due  to  faulty  cul- 
tivation— ^throwing  the  dirt  up  around  the  corn  to  cover  grass  and 
weeds.  Above  the  ear  greater  length  of  internodes  is  not  only  per- 
missable,  but  necessary  to  insure  flexibility  of  the  stem  in  the- 
breezes. 


B.  Leaves. 

1.  Color — The  dark  green  color  of  the  leaf  of  a  thriving  corn 
plant  indicates  that  the  chlorophyll  is  actively  engaged  in  preparing 
the  plant  food,  brought  up  by  the  roots  for  use  of  the  entire  plant. 
Any  variation  from  that  color  proves  immediately,  faulty  transfor- 
mation, consequent  lack  of  assimilation,  and  a  weakening  of  the 
plant.  At  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  ear  the  presence  of  a 
healthy  color  is  absolutely  necessary  for  rapid  and  extended  de- 
velopment of  the  fertilized  ovules.  Yellow  is  the  first  sign  of  weak- 
ness and  lack  of  thrift.  Red  streaking  of  the  veins  and  midrib  should 
be  discriminated  against  very  closely,  because  its  presence  indicates 
incomplete  carbon  fixation. 

2.  Size — A  full  grown  stalk  of  corn  has  as  much  as  twenty 
square  feet  of  leaf  surface  exposed.  The  greater  the  spread  of  leaf- 
surface  the  greater  the  spread  for  breathing  and  digesting.  Large 
leaves  act  as  catch  basins  and  conveyors  for  falling  moisture.    Ex-^ 


CORN  163 

cessive  foliage  should  be  criticised  because  of  the  tendency  to  less  ear 
production  accompanying  this  character. 

3.  Number — A  large  number  of  leaves  spring  from  a  large 
number  of  nodes.    The  stalk  consequently  has  shorter  internodes. 

4.  Condition — A  splitting  and  tearing  away  of  the  leaves  due 
to  the  winds  or  hail  can  not  be  scored  against  the  stalk.  However, 
another  stalk  which  does  not  show  these  conditions  should  be  given 
credit.  Stalks  which  show  dead  leaves  long  before  maturity  should 
be  discriminated  against. 


III.  TILLERS  OR  SUCKERS. 

Tillers  are  produced  because  of  an  oversupply  of  plant  food  due 
to  thin  planting,  rich  soil,  or  excessive  moisture.  However,  as  corn 
in  its  original  form  grew  several  stalks  from  one  seed  instead  of  one 
as  it  now  does,  the  frequency  and  constancy  of  the  appearance  of 
tillers  should  be  closely  watched.  Stalks  alike  in  other  respects,  the 
one  without  suckers  is  to  be  preferred.  In  discriminating  against 
tillers,  their  size,  number  and  position  should  be  considered. 


IV.  EAR. 

1.  Height — The  height  of  the  ear  will  depend  to  some  extent 
upon  the  variety,  season,  soil  and  locality  in  which  the  corn  is  grown. 
However,  because  high  setting  ears  are  later  in  maturing,  require  a 
taller  stalk  and  are  consequently  more  liable  to  being  blown  over, 
close  observations  should  be  made  of  this  character.  Selection  has 
proved  that  this  character  can  be  fixed  to  large  entent  in  a  given 
variety  under  similar  conditions  even  though  these  conditions  be 
conducive  to  rank  growth  of  stalk.  In  judging  this  point  keep  in 
mind  the  comparative  degree. 

2.  Length  and  Size  of  Shank — ^A  long  shank  usually  accompanies 
a  long  slender  stalk  and  both  are  co-ordinate  with  a  long  ear  of 
small  circumference.  Long  shanks  are  more  liable  to  breaking  and 
allow  the  ear  to  droop  too  early  which  often  causes  poor  pollination 
of  the  silks  on  the  under  side.    A  shank  which  is  too  short  has  a  tend- 


164  CORN 

ency  to  hold  the  ear  upright  even  after  maturity,  which  condition  al- 
lows the  entrance  of  fall  rains  and  results  in  molding. 

A  large  coarse  shank  is  the  only  outward  indication  of  a  large 
open  butt.  Too  much  refinement  in  the  shank  may  result  in  the  com- 
pressed butt,  and  accompanying  diminished  size  of  the  ear. 

3.  Position — Position  refers  to  the  angle  which  the  ear  forms 
with  the  stem.  In  judging  the  position,  the  stage  of  maturity  should 
be  considered.  An  ear  in  silk  or  just  pollinated  should  form  a  very 
acute  angle  with  the  internode  in  the  groove  of  which  it  lies.  The 
angle  should  gradually  widen  until  as  the  dent  stage  comes  it  has 
reached  90  degrees.    This  character  deserves  close  observation. 

4.  Size — (Do  not  husk  the  ear  unless  matured.) — In  scoring 
the  size  'of  an  ear  as  it  is  maturing  on  the  stalk  the  fact  that  the  ear 
will  shrink  both  in  length  and  circumference  should  be  taken  into 
consideration.  Do  not  be  misled  in  crediting  the  ear  with  size  when 
in  reality  the  husks  are  overly  thick  and  numerous.  It  will  be  well 
to  press  gently  on  the  ear  in  several  places.  The  size  of  the  ear  de- 
termines the  yield  so  largely  that  a  higher  score  is  here  given. 

5.  Shape — Many  extremes  of  shape  will  be  encountered  in 
judging  ears  on  the  stalk.  Discriminate  against  the  long,  tapering 
ear,  the  short  chubby  ear,  the  slender  ear  throughout.  Because  of 
the  greater  number  and  thickness  of  husks  near  the  butt,  more  cir- 
cumference at  this  point  should  be  looked  for.  However  the  taper 
of  the  tip  should  be  gradual  because  the  husks  cease  in  extent  one 
after  another  naturally,  in  case  the  ear  carries  a  deep  grain  along  the 
entire  length.  Variety  characteristics  should  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. 

6.  Filling  of  Tip — By  gently  feeling  the  tip  of  the  ear  the  fill- 
ing of  the  kernels  over  the  cob  can  be  ascertained  quite  exactly.  In 
very  young  corn,  in  breeding  blocks  especially,  care  should  be  exer- 
cised not  to  press  too  vigorously.  Where  the  husks  do  not  protect 
the  tip  of  the  ear  the  filling  can  be  noted  with  the  eye.  In  years  of 
seasonal  drought  when  many  of  the  tips  of  the  ears  lack  filling  this 
character  should  be  studied  closely.  Variety  type  should  here  be 
kept  in  mind  also. 

V.  TASSEL. 

1.     Size — A  large  tassel  with  stocky    central  '  stem    and   large 


CORN 


165 


number  of  branches  indicates  masculinity.  There  are  a  great  number 
of  spikelets  which  produce  not  only  sufficient  pollen  but  virile  pollen. 
2.  Shape — Correlated  with  a  sturdy  stalk,  is  a  short  yet  well- 
branched  and  compact  tassel.  A  spindling,  extended  poorly- 
branched  tassel  usually  accompanies  a  weak  stalk. 

VI.    FREEDOM  FROM  DISEASE  AND  INSECT  INJURIES. 

Close  observation  and  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  rav- 
ages of  insects  are  necessary  to  score  a  stalk  under  this  heading. 
Space  is  too  limited  here  to  describe  these  points  in  detail.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  although  attacks  of  disease  and  insects  are 
not  due  immediately  to  the  stalk,  yet  a  stalk  so  affected  shows  a 
weakness  in  consequence  thereof. 

From  this  larger  form  the  following  has  been  derived  which  is 
much  quicker  but  omits  many  of  the  details.  It  assumes  a  larger 
knowledge  of  the  plant  by  the  student. 

Field  Score  Card  of  Corn 


Date Name  of  Scorer 

Variety  Where  located 


standard 


Stalk  Numbers 


1.    Adaptability 


2.     Vigor 


3.    Height  of  Plant  and 
height  and  angle  of 


4.  Uniformity  and  true- 
ness  of  type. 

5.  WeigVit  of  ear 

(estimated) 


Total 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

e  to 

35 

25 

15 

■ 

10 

15 

100 


166 


CORN 


Ai0MM}k 


■*^  HI  O  OJ 


<t>  (P  J*  H 


m  <u 


o3  O  >! 
d      to  tn  (!) 

-  ®  0)  0)  ;^ 


2  "  ®  s  o 

P  m  O  « 


ri 


ft- 


t1  H  w  ?  « 


CORN  16T 

How  to  Study  in  the  Field. 

It  has  been  said  before  in  this  study  that  the  field  is  the  place  to 
study  corn.  Yes,  it  is  the  place  to  study  all  forms  of  agriculture.  But 
the  student  who  has  spent  his  time  in  the  class  room  will  be  lost  and 
unable  to  handle  himself  in  the  field.  And  there  is  no  doubt  in  the 
mind  of  the  most  of  us  that  the  farmer  who  has  not  been  studying  at 
all  will  be  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do  with  himself  when  he  enters, 
.the  field  for  some  other  purpose  than  to  plow.  But  the  field  is  the 
very  best  laboratory.    Let  us  make  use  of  it  now. 

Take  a  part  of  the  field  that  is  the  handiest.  Do  not  look  for  the 
very  best  nor  the  very  worst  part,  but  take  just  whatever  is  at  hand. 
Take  just  one  row  of  that  part  of  the  field  and  make  that  your  lab- 
oratory. Remember  that  you  are  studying  the  part  that  produces- 
the  ear  for  which  we  are  all  working.  Eemember  the  definitions  that 
have  already  been  given  and  there  will  be  no  more  trouble.  Perhaps 
it  will  pay  to  stay  fifteen  minutes  on  one  hill.  Learn  that  one  and 
there  will  be  little  trouble  in  mastering  the  rest. 

Notice  first  the  stand.  For  the  average  land  there  should  be 
three  stalks  in  the  hill.  That  is  three  stalks  per  hill  is  supposed  to 
give  the  highest  yield  of  any  arrangement  so  far.  So  if  there  is  any 
short  of  that  there  will  not  be  the  maximum  yield.  It  will  be  well 
to  place  a  stake  in  the  ground  near  this  first  hill.  Put  it  in  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  it  being  worked  out.  It  will  serve  as  a  guide 
for  study  at  other  times.  Then  work  down  the  row  taking  such  notes 
as  the  following : 

1.  Hill  number— Each  hill  ought  to  be  numbered.  There  wiU 
not  be  so  great  a  number  under  study  but  what  that  can  be  done. 
Then  when  there  is  need  of  referring  to  the  hill  there  will  be  no- 
question  as  to  its  placement. 

2.  Number  of  Stalks  on  the  Hill — ^This  is  needed  for  the  final 
figures  when  the  stand  is  being  figured.  After  a  hundred  stalks  have 
been  noted  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  calculating  the  stand. 

3.  Number  of  Suckers — These  come  for  a  great  many  reasons, 
but  there  is  no  use  for  them  if  the  regular  stalks  develop  correctly. 
If  there  are  very  many  it  is  likely  that  the  corn  might  have  been 
planted  more  closely  without  any  bad  results. 


168  CORN 

4.  Number  of  Ears  in  the  Hill — Of  course  this  will  include  the 
number  on  each  stalk.  A  stalk  that  does  not  produce  an  ear  is  feed- 
ing from  the  strength  of  the  rest. 

5.  Node  Bearing  the  Ear — While  the  farmer  has  passed 
through  his  fields  many  times  he  may  not  be  able  to  tell  at  which 
node  the  corn  is  given  off ;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  this  point  is  of 
value  in  determining  whether  the  corn  is  a  high  yielder  or  not. 

6.  Position  of  the  Ear — That  is,  what  is  its  height,  its  angle? 

7.  Height  of  Stalk. 

8.  Circumference  of  Stalk. 

9.  Number  of  Leaves — There  is  a  leaf  at  every  node,  so  if  the 
number  of  nodes  are  counted  the  number  of  leaves  will  be  known. 

10.  Size  of  the  Leaves — This  is  usually  secured  by  taking  the 
length  and  the  width  and  multiplying.  This  gives  the  relative  value 
of  the  leaves.  Of  course  the  leaves  are  the  eating  and  breathing 
parts  of  the  plant  and  we  cannot  expect  any  more  from  the  corn 
plant  with  scanty  lungs  than  we  can  from  the  man  who  has  no  life 
and  action. 

11.  Brace  Root  Development — It  has  been  found  that  the  brace 
roots  will  determine  to  a  large  extent  the  rest  of  the  plant.  Of 
course  the  brace  roots  are  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  plant  in 
a  more  erect  position.  If  there  are  winds  of  any  force  these  brace- 
roots  will  be  developed  in  an  abnormal  fashion.  That  is,  they  will 
be  of  good  size. 

12.  This  study  will  not  stop  with  a  few  days,  but  will  continue 
for  the  entire  season.  That  means  that  the  student  will  be  in  the 
field  at  the  time  of  harvest.  Of  course  that  is  the  best  time  to  study. 
And  then  is  the  time  to  study  the  size  of  the  ears — their  actual 
weight.  Then  the  good  ears  should  be  taken  from  the  poor  ones  and 
the  stalks  that  produced  the  weaklings  noted.  The  ears  that  are 
good  for  seed  should  be  saved,  and  the  best  ones,  whether  they  are 
good  ones  for  seed  or  not,  should  be  taken  out  for  the  purpose  of 
judging.  Comparisons  should  be  made  of  the  ears  as  they  would  be 
judged  from  the  strict  standpoint  of  a  critic  and  from  their  work  in 
the  field.  Note  closely  to  see  whether  the  well  formed  ears  are  the 
ones  from  the  best  stalks  in  the  field. 

Now  if  the  work  has  been  completed  step  by  step  there  ought  to 


CORN  169 

be  some  questions  that  have  arisen  in  the  minds  of  the  students.  And 
those  questions  ought  to  be  settled  before  going  any  further.  Here 
are  some  of  the  questions  that  I  am  sure  have  been  suggested : 

1.  What  four  things  are  the  most  prominent  in  influencing  the 
suekering  of  corn? 

2.  Is  there  any  sense  in  which  the  suekering  of  corn  is  desir- 
able ? 

3.  Why  is  it  that  sweet  and  pop  corn  sucker  more  than  dent 
corn? 

4.  Which  is  liable  to  sucker  more,  early  or  late  planted  corn? 

Why? 

5.  Which  will  sucker  more,  listed  corn  or  corn  planted  shal- 
low?   Why? 

6.  Name  four  factors  that  influence  the  number  of  barren 
stalks  in  a  field. 

7.  Name  two  good  reasons  why  barren  stalks  should  be  elimi- 
nated from  a  corn  field. 

8.  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  stand  and  the  maturity  of 
the  ears? 

9.  Between  the  stand  and  barren  stalks? 

10.  Between  the  height  of  the  stalks  and  the  brace  roots? 

11.  Between  the  tassel  development- and  the  ear  development? 

12.  Are  twin-ear  stalks  to  be  desired?    Why? 

13.  How  would  a  dry  period  affect  the  ear  development? 

14.  What  are  the  most  desirable  points  in  a  stalk  of  corn? 

15.  What  is  a  good  stalk  of  corn? 

These  are  questions  which  should  have  been  suggested  by  the 
present  study.  They  are  for  thought.  The  student  should  thor- 
oughly discuss  them  with  himself  until  he  is  sure  that  he  has  an  an- 
swer that  is  reasonable. 

The  object  in  bringing  in  these  questions  is  to  encourage  the 
student  to  think  for  himself.  Do  not  try  to  hedge  around  that  thing 
for  the  most  returns  in  all  walks  of  life  come  to  those  who  are  capa- 
ble of  thinking  for  themselves.  That  does  not  mean  the  same  thing 
as  ''having  a  mind  of  your  own."  This  latter  sometimes  means 
nothing  but  stubbornness.    But  the   man   who   is    independent    in 


170  CORN 

thought  always  has  some  good  to  look  forward  to,  and  many  pleas- 
ures to  look  back  at.  Be  the  independent  thinker.  Take  these  ques- 
tions and  figure  them  out  as  you  know  corn  from  these  studies.  Some 
of  the  past  pages  may  help  you,  but  none  of  them  will  answer  the 
questions  directly.    Do  the  work  yourself. 


COMMERCIAL  USES  OF  CORN. 

Before  we  go  any  farther  there  are  three  points  that  are  neces- 
sary to  complete  this  subject  at  hand.  One  of  them  is  the  commer- 
cial uses  of  corn.  And  the  reason  is  that  the  market  really  sets  the 
judge's  standards. 

The  ordinary  corn  plant  is  needed  for  three  of  its  parts:  The 
ear,  the  cob,  and  the  plant.  These  last  two  are  of  the  least  impor- 
tance and  so  will  be  mentioned  first. 

^^  The  Cob  Is  Used. 

Cobs  are  used  for  fuel.  This  practice  is  common  especially  in 
those  sections  where  other  fuel  is  difficult  to  get.  And  yet  corn  cobs 
do  not  make  bad  fuel.  It  is  usually  calculated  that  three  tons  of 
corn  cobs  equal  in  fuel  value  one  ton  of  ordinary  wood,  but  the  fact 
that  they  are  a  by-product  from  the  farm  and  elevators  of  the  coun- 
try makes  them  desirable. 

Cobs  are  used  as  feed.  Some  ridicule  used  to  follow  an  expres- 
sion of  the  usefulness  of  corn  cobs  as  feed.  They  are  not  of  very 
much  value,  but  when  they  are  ground  with  the  corn  they  add  bulk. 
This  saves  the  process  of  shelling  the  corn. 

,  Cobs  are  used  in  manufacturing  pipes.  The  section  of  the  coun- 
try that  has  prominence  in  this  work  is  Missouri.  There  are  parts 
around  St.  Louis  where  a  special  type  of  corn  is  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  has  an  extremely  large  cob,  while  the  kernels  are  shallow. 
The  price  paid  for  these  cobs  is  about  $25  per  thousand  pounds  if 
the  cobs  are  first  class.  The  amount  of  these  cobs  produced  each 
year  is  not  increasing,  since  the  supply  in  the  United  States  is  am- 
ple and  there  is  little  foreign  output. 

Cobs  are  used  in  upholstering,  and  for  padding  mattresses.  That 


CORN  171 

is,  there  is  a  byproduct  from  the  manufacture  of  the  pipes  which  is 
used  for  that  purpose.  It  is  the  down  which  comes  from  the  chaf- 
fing of  the  cobs. 

The  Plant  Is  Used. 

There  has  been  so  much  of  corn  stalks  burned  in  the  fields  of  the 
corn  belt  during  the  time  that  corn  has  been  raised  that  the  business 
men  have  wondered.  In  the  business  world  a  scheme  of  some  sort 
would  have  been  invented  for  the  utilization  of  the  stalk.  And  in 
fact  from  the  commercial  centers  comes  the  need  for  the  stalks. 

Paper  has  been  produced  from  rags  and  old  paper  for  some 
time.  This  process  was  more  or  less  expensive  for  the  coarser  grades 
of  paper.  So*  the  corn  stalk  was  tried  and  it  has  been  found  that  a 
good  grade  of  paper  can  be  produced  from  the  corn  stalk  for  about 
$30  per  ton.  Paper  from  other  sources  ordinarily  costs  about  double 
that.  Specially  devised  machinery  of  course  followed  this  discov- 
ery, until  at  the  present  time  the  work  is  a  success.  The  leaves  are 
not  used  in  this  process.  The  finer  portions  of  the  stalk  are  used 
for  good  paper  while  the  coarser  parts  are  used  for  cardboard. 

The  use  to  which  the  pith  is  put  for  packing  on  war  vessels  is 
often  mentioned,  but  that  is  of  little  value  outside  of  selected  dis- 
tricts.   It  is  being  used,  however,  successfully  for  that  purpose. 

The  cellulose,  or  coarse  material  of  the  corn  stalk,  is  of  value  in 
many  ways.  Chemicals  convert  it  into  forms  which  are  used  com- 
mercially. 

The  leaves  are  used  where  they  are  the  by-product  of  some  of 
these  other  processes.  They  have  been  found  fairly  valuable.  A 
number  of  the  patent  stock  foods  contain  the  corn  leaves  and  other 
by-products  in  a  finely  ground  condition. 

The  husks  are  used  for  the  packing  of  horse  collars  and  rough 
seats,  and  the  like.  Some  forms  of  hats  are  made  from  the  husks, 
but  usually  other  products  are  more  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 

The  Corn  Is  Used. 

By  corn  we  mean  the  kernels.  And  this  is  the  part  that  is  of 
the  most  importance  to  the  average  farmer,  and  is  the  part  that  sets 
the  real  market  value  of  the  corn  as  we  ordinarily  think  of  it. 


172  CORN 

Corn  meal  usually  passes  through  our  homes  without  the  thought 
of  the  fact  that  it  comes  from  the  corn  which  we  are  raising  on  the 
farm.  The  corn  meal  industry  demands  good  corn.  The  old  meth- 
ods of  grinding  took  the  entire  kernel.  But  the  modern  methods 
where  the  product  after  it  is  ground  must  remain  on  the  grocery 
shelf  for  no  telling  how  long  requires  different  tactics.  It  was  soon 
found  that  if  the  germ  were  left  in  the  corn  meal  it  would  deteriorate 
very  quickly,  while  if  it  were  removed  before  the  product  were 
ground  and  only  the  starchy  part  used  it  would  keep  indefinitely. 
So  the  germs  were  taken  out  and  used  for  something  else.  There 
have  been  various  methods,  but  the  result  has  been  all  the  same. 
There  are  special  trades  at  the  present  tim^,  however,  where  the 
whole  corn  meal  is  demanded.  The  people  who  buy  •^his  know  that 
the  meal  will  keep  only  a  limited  time.  They  also  know  that  the  meal 
is  much  richer  for  the  presence  of  the  germ  than  it  would  be  with- 
out.   For  that  reason  they  demand  it. 

Corn  meal  as  a  food  will  always  be  recognized.  Prom  the  very 
earliest  times  it  has  been  used.  Many  prefer  it  to  wheat  in  produc- 
ing bread.  Its  actual  food  value  does  not  equal  wheat,  but  it  is  not 
far  below.  Corn  meal  is  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  wheat  flour, 
but  that  cannot  be  recommended. 

The  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  corn  meal  are  very 
valuable.  These  by-products  may  be  classed  under  the  germ-prod- 
ucts and  the  hull-products.  The  oil  is  taken  from  the  germ  by  pres- 
sure and  the  resulting  "germ-oil  meal"  is  sold  for  stock  feed.  This 
of  course,  takes  place  only  in  the  larger  concerns.  The  smaller  mills 
take  the  germs  and  by  mixing  them  with  oats,  or  with  the  corn  hulls 
produce  a  very  satisfactory  stock  food. 

Hominy  is  one  common  food  which  is  produced  only  in  limited 
sections  for  the  reason  that  a  special  corn  is  required  for  the  best 
-hominy.  If  a  community  decides  to  raise  hominy  corn  it  will  likely 
be  profitable  for  all,  but  the  single  farmer  in  such  an  industry  may 
be  a  loser.  The  corn  necessary  for  good  hominy  should  have  hard, 
flinty,  long  kernels,  the  larger  the  better.  White  corn  is  the  only 
kind  used,  for  the  market  demands  a  white  product.  Some  of  the 
hominy  products  have  the  germ  in  them.  Those  are  the  common 
ones.  There  are  some  products  that  require  that  the  germ  be  re- 
anoved,  but  these  are  little  known. 


CORN  173 

By-Products. 


It  would  be  very  detailed  to  go  over  the  various  products  in 
anything  like  complete  fashion,  but  some  of  them  can  be  mentioned. 
Oil  cake  and  meal,  that  we  have  mentioned,  is  frequently  used.  Sev- 
eral forms  of  starch  come  from  the  kernel,  the  ordinary  "Corn 
Starch"  being  the  most  common.  Then  from  this  comes  several 
forms  of  sugars.  "Karo  Corn  Syrup"  is  one.  Corn  rubber  is  a  prod- 
uct often  displayed  but  little  is  said  as  to  its  source,  for  the  process 
is  a  secret  one.  Gluten  meal,  one  of  the  valuable  products,  is  used 
extensively  where  a  concentrated  feed  is  demanded.  The  protein  of 
the  kernel  is  what  furnishes  this  product.  Corn  is  likewise  used 
quite  extensively  in  the  production  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  bever- 
ages. For  this  work  a  corn  with  a  high  per  cent,  of  starch  is  de- 
manded, for  the  reason  that  it  is  the  starch  that  is  converted  into 
alcohol.  The  protein  is  of  little  use,  except  as  it  may  be  used  in  the 
feeds  which  are  products  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  the  al- 
cohol. 

It  can  be  seen  from  this  that  the  standard  used  by  the  average 
judge  is  not  that  of  any  of  these  special  industries.  There  are  often 
classes  made  for  hominy  corn,  and  of  course  then  it  becomes  the  part 
of  the  judge  to  discriminate  along  those  lines.  But  the  usual  stand- 
ard is  that  set  by  the  market  which  has  to  take  all  of  these  factors 
into  consideration.  All  of  these  industries  demand  clean  wholesome 
corn.  Consequently  the  market  demands  it.  And  yet  there  is  car 
load  after  car  load  of  corn  going  to  the  market  which  will  show  19 
or  20  per  cent,  of  moisture,  upon  test.  That  means  that  the  corn  has 
not  been  mature.  Or  in  other  words  the  farmer  was  trying  to  raise 
a  bigger  corn  than  his  climate  would  allow.  Even  the  feeding  of  the 
corn  demands  a  mature  corn. 

The  market,  and  we  usually  think  of  the  Chicago  market  as  the 
one  that  sets  the  standard  for  corn,  has  to  act  as  the  balance  wheel 
for  all  of  the  forces,  those  from  the  farm  and  those  from  all  of  the 
manufacturing  centers.  They  think  little  about  the  cob  and  the 
plant  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  demand  for  them.  And  so  the 
farmer  hears  about  that  only  indirectly.  But  the  markets  for  shelled 
corn  appear  in  the  paper  every  day. 


174  CORN 

What  Are  Markets? 

It  would  pay  every  one  who  has  not  already  done  so  to  visit  the 
'Chicago  market  and  see  how  the  work  is  carried  on  at  that  great  cen- 
ter for  human  products. 

Chicago  is  what  may  be  called  a  terminal  market.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  markets :  Primary  and  terminal.  The  first  is  that  which 
takes  grain  from  the  farmer.  The  last  receives  the  grain  in  large 
shipments  for  storage  or  for  use  where  the  demand  exists.  Chicago 
is,  of  course,  both,  but  the  larger  work,  as  a  city,  is  that  of  handling 
grain  from  a  great  many  centers.  To  Chicago  is  sent  the  grain  from 
thousands  of  local  points  where  elevators  have  collected  it.  These 
elevators  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Line  elevator,  and  the  Co-operative 
elevator.  The  independent  elevator  might  be  mentioned,  but  there 
are  few  of  those  compared  with  the  others.  The  line  elevator  is  con- 
trolled by  a  company  which  has  many  elevators  along  a  certain  rail- 
way system.  The  co-operative  elevator  is  owned  by  farmers  for 
their  own  benefit.  Both  are  successful  where  they  are  managed  cor- 
rectly, but  the  difficulty  of  getting  good  managers  is  greater  for  the 
co-operative  concerns  than  it  is  for  the  others. 

The-corn  is  shelled  before  it  is  sent  to  the  terminal  points.  Some- 
times com  is  shipped  on  the  cob,  but  very  seldom.  It  is  loaded  into 
cars  that  have  been  properly  prepared.  There  are  many  points  to 
be  noted  in  arranging  the  car  so  that  no  leaks  will  occur,  but  defi- 
nite directions  cannot  be  given  for  all  cars.  If  it  is  remembered  that 
the  corn  is  to  go  a  long  distance  and  that  the  weight  on  the  car  is 
very  great  there  will  be  no  slackness  in  using  every  precaution  for 
^safety. 

The  inspection  which  takes  place  just  as  the  car  enters  the  yards 
is  where  the  eye  of  the  judge  is  needed.  Specially  trained  men  do 
this  work.  In  the  Chicago  yards  there  are  several  inspectors  who 
spend  their  entire  time  grading  corn  for  the  market  under  the  su- 
pervision of  a  chief  inspector. 

The  car  is  opened.  A  record  of  the  seal  on  it  is  taken,  the  num- 
ber of  the  car,  the  date  it  arrived,  and  the  like,  so  that  should  any 
question  arise  there  will  be  no  doubt  as  to  what  car  is  being  dis- 
cussed, nor  as  to  any  point  in  regard  to  the  history  of  that  car.  A 
sample  of  the  corn  is  taken  by  a  long    sampling    device    called  a 


CORN 


175 


"Tryer."  The  com  is  carefully  noted  and  details  placed  on  the  rec- 
ord book.  A  sample  is  taken  to  the  laboratories  for  closer  inspec- 
tion. There,  if  the  demand  is  made  for  a  moisture  determination, 
that  is  done.  It  takes  about  thirty  minutes  to  run  the  determination, 
so  the  party,  who  is  waiting  to  learn  whether  it  will  be  profitable  to 


--,»**., 


'9j»*«*,»^^,^^  - -^^ .^   . 


^^^^l^as 


"PLATE  14. — All  cars  of  grain  are  inspected  as  they  ente,r  the  terminal  market. 
The  weight  of  the  grain  is  taken  by  the  inspector.  All  points  of  the  car 
are  noted.  There  is  little  chance  of  having  poor  corn  on  the  bottom  with- 
out it  being-  detected,  for  the  inspectors  take  samples  from  all  depths  and 
from  all  widths  of  the  car.  After  a  grade  is  placed  on  the  grain  a  sample 
is  sent  to  the  laboratories  for  further  inspection. 


buy  or  not,  does  not  have  to  wait  any  great  length  of  time.  Corn 
ought  not  to  show  over  15  per  cent,  of  moisture.  If  it  does  the  grade 
is  at  once  lowered. 

There  are  many  crooks  and  turns  to  the    marketing    question 


176  CORN 

that  every  farmer  ought  to  know.  There  are  many  markets  and  the 
best  one  for  one  farmer  may  not  be  the  best  for  another.  But  a 
study  of  the  proposition  is  demanded.  For  our  work  in  this  ease 
the  part  that  is  of  the  most  importance  is  the  grading. 

From  Judging  to  Grading. 

The  work  of  judging  is  a  leader  to  that  of  grading.  "With  the 
small  grains  the  grading  might  be  said  to  be  the  climax  of  judging. 
This  is  not  so  strictly  true  with  corn  for  several  reasons,  one  of 
which  is  that  corn  is  sold  on  the  market  in  the  shelled  state,  and  of 
course  is  graded  in  that  condition.  Corn  is  judged  on  the  cob.  The 
best  way  to  learn  what  the  grades  really  are  is  to  visit  the  markets 
and  the  yards,  see  the  inspecting  done  and  the  samples  taken.  The 
next  best  thing  is  to  study  the  rules  that  these  men  lay  down  for 
their  work.  Following  is  a  list  of  the  grades  of  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket: 

Tlie  following  maximum  limits  shall  govern  all  inspection  and 
grading  of  corn: 


Grade. 

Percentage 

of 

moisture. 

Percentage 
cob-rotten. 
Exclusive  of 
bin  burnt  or 
mahogany 
corn. 

Percentage 
dirt  and 
broken  grain 

1 

15 

1 

1 

2 

16 

5 

2 

3 

19 

10 

4 

4 

22 

See  No.  4,  ( 

corn 

rule,  all  colors. 

No. 

1   WHITE 

CORN— Shall 

be 

99  per  cent. 

white, 

sweet  and 

well  matured. 

No.  2  WHITE  CORN— Shall  be  98  per  cent,  white  and  sweet. 

No.  3  WHITE  CORN — Shall  be  98  per  cent,  white  and  sweet. 

No.  4  WHITE  CORN — Shall  be  98  per  cent,  white,  but  shall  in- 
clude damp,  damaged  or  musty  corn. 

No.  1  YELLOW  CORN — Shall  be  99  per  cent,  yellow,  sweet  and 
well  matured. 

No.  2  YELLOW  CORN — Shall  be  95  per  cent,  yellow  and  sweet. 

No.  3  YELLOW  CORN — Shall  be  95  per  cent,  yellow  and  sweet. 

No.  4  YELLOW  CORN— Shall  be  95  per  cent,  yellow,  but  shall 
include  damp,  damaged  or  musty  corn. 

No.  1  MIXED  CORN — Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors,  sweet  and 
well  matured. 

No.  2  MIXED  CORN — Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors  and  sweet. 

No.  3  MIXED  CORN — Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors  and  sweet. 

No.  4  MIXED  CORN — Shall  be  corn  of  various  colors;  but  shalL 
include  damp,  damaged  or  musty  corn. 


CORN  177 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION. 

This  work  started  with  the  thought  that  judging  was  an  end  in 
itself.  At  least  there  are  those  who,  before  they  read  these  pages 
thought  that.  If  you  did  not,  you  may  compliment  yourself..  Judg- 
ing of  corn  or  of  live  stock  will  never  be  of  any  value  unless  that  is 
applied  where  it  is  needed.  For  the  most  of  us  that  will  be  on  the 
farm.  That  is  where  it  i?.  required  most  for  corn,  and  I  believe  that 
we  are  safe  in  saying  for  cattle  and  for  hogs,  for  horses  and  for 
mules.  But  we  are  influenced  by  the  markets,  and  on  those  mar- 
kets the  ability  to  judge  corn  correctly  does  not  come  amiss.  Per- 
haps the  live  stock  raised  and  the  corn  produced  have  told  the  mar- 
kets what  they  should  demand,  but  the  markets  are  talking  now,  and 
we  should  listen. 

Study  the  corn.  There  is  a  never  ending  story  in  it.  And  per- 
haps some  day  you  will  see  profits  coming  to  you  in  many  ways  be- 
cause you  knew  some  facts  that  others  failed  to  grasp. 


178  CORN 


EXAMINATION 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS.— These  questions  are  to  be  answered 
independently.  Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  ex- 
amination. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6x9  inches  for  the  exami- 
nation. Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never 
repeat  the  question.     Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  "What  is  meant  by  "judging  corn"? 

2.  Is  there  any  difference  between  that  and  "scoring  corn"? 

3.  How  do  the  ideas  on  corn  judging  at  the  present  time  differ 

from  those  of  several  years  ago? 

4.  Where  do  the  standards  set  by  the  judges  come  from? 

5.  What  is  a  corn  show?    What  should  it  be?  ,      - 

6.  Wherein  does  the  value  of  judging  lie  as  far  as  the  judge  is- 

concerned  ? 

7.  What  similarities  are  there  between  the   judging    of    animals^ 

and  that  of  corn? 

8.  What  is  the  value  of  the  score  card? 

9.  What  four  points  are  to  be  considered  in  scoring  corn?     The 

four  main  points. 


CORN  179 

10.  What  are  classes  of  corn  in  a  show? 

11.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  each  of  the  main  heads  under  which 

the  scoring  is  done. 

12      What  relation  does  maturity  have  to  size  of  ear? 

13.  Is  the  filling  of  the  butts  and  the  tips  important?    "Why  or  why 

not?  , 

14.  How  should  the  ear  be  handled  in  order  that  every  point  may 

be  seen? 

15.  How  is  the  best  method  of  arranging  the  sample  for  study  or 

for  show?    Explain  in  detail. 

16.  Where  in  the  history  of  the  ear  of  corn  as  it  develops  and  is 

disposed  of  is  the  matter  of  maturity  of  the  most  importance  ? 
Explain  your  answer. 

17.  What  value  has  the  kernel  in  indicating  to  the  judge  what  the 

ear  is  worth? 

18.  Name  four  things  that  will  indicate  that  an  ear  is  immature. 

19.  Does  it  matter  whether  an  ear  will  grow  or  not  when  it  is  sent 

to  the  show  ?     Explain. 

20.  How  can  a  germinable  ear  be  told  ?    Give  details. 

21.  What  is  the  germ?    The  chit?    The  embs-yo?    The  endosperm? 

22.  What  are  the  indications  of  good  breeding  in  an  ear  of  corn? 

23.  Describe  a  good  ear  of  corn,  mentioning  only  the    most     im- 

portant points. 

24.  What  is  a  corn  variety?    Where  does  the  judge  meet  varieties? 


tm  CORN 

25.  "Will  judging  corn  in  Maine  be  the  same  as  judging  eoth  in  In- 

diana ?    Why  or  why  not  ? 

26.  "What  form  of  a  score  card  is  used  wh^re  there  is  a  large  show 

and  the  people  desire  to  have  the  samples  scored  ? 

27.  How  ought  a  judge  to  work  in  getting  a  show  taken    care  of 

quickly?    Explain  the  method  of  procedure. 

28.  What  points  in  preparing  for  a  show  will  assure  a  success?     ~ 

29.  What  points  will  help  in  the  work  of  the  judge? 

30.  What  is  meant  by  "placing  corn"? 

31.  Imagine  three  ears  of  corn.    Give  your  reasons  for  placing  one 

over  the  others. 

32.  What  part  does  the  plant  play  in  the  production  of  a  good  ear 

of  corn?    Cite  an  instance  from  the  work  that  you  have  done. 

33.  What  qualities  should  the  stalk  of  corn  possess  ? 

34.  Does  it  matter  whether  there  are  large  leaves  or  not? 

35.  Of  what  use  is  the  tassel  to  the  plant  ?    Can  you  see  any  reason 

for  its  shape  ? 

36.  Name  five  points  to  be  jioted  in  a  field  study  of  corn. 

37.  What  are  twin-ear  stalks?    Are  they  desirable? 

38.  What  are  suckers?    Do  they  produce  good  ears? 

39.  For  what  is  the  corn  plant  used  commercially? 

40.  In  making  corn  meal,  what  part  of  the  kernel  is  the  most  im- 

portant? 


CORN  181 

41.  How  is  grain  sent  to  the  terminal  market? 

42.  "What  is  a  terminal  market? 

43.  Explain  how  a  car  of  corn  is  inspected. 

44.  Name  five  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  grades  for  corn. 

45.  More  fully  explain  the  relation  between  the  markets  and  the 

judging  of  corn. 


WRITE  THIS  AT  THE  END  OF  YOUR  EXAMINATION. 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  en- 
tirely by  me. 

Signed 

Address 


figlEllV-rT^ElE 


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^  Correspondence  College 
of  Agriculture 


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CORN-PART   FOUR 


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THE 


Correspondence   College 
of  Agriculture 


FORT  WAYNE.  INDIANA 


CORN— Part  IV. 


Corn  Culture 

By  HARRY  B.  POTTER.  B.  S. 

"Farm  and  Fireside" 

Sprinizfield.  Ohio 


This  is  the  Last  of  a  Series  of  Four  Books  giving  a  Complete  Course  of  Instruction 

on  Com 


COPYRIGHT.  1912 
"CAe  CORRESPONDENCE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NOTE    TO    STUDENTS 


In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  possible  benefit  from  this 
paper,  you  must  thoroughly  master  the  text.  While  it  is  not  in- 
tended that  you  commit  the  exact  words  of  the  text  to  memory, 
still  there  is  nothing  contained  in  the  text  which  is  rot  absolutely 
essential  for  the  intelligent  corn  grower  to  know.  For  your  own 
good  never  refer  to  the  examination  questions  until  you  have  fin- 
ished your  study  of  the  text.  By  followmg  this  plan,  the  examin- 
ation paper  will  show  what  you  have  learned  from  the  text. 


Part  IV.— CORN 


INTRODUCTION. 


Before  this  last  study  is  begun  it  may  be  well  to  outline  it  in  a 
general  way.  The  preceding  studies  have  each  been  upon  one  sub- 
ject and  only  one.  This  study  has  four  headings  to  present.  They 
are: 

1.  Diseases  of  Corn. 

2.  Insect  Pests  of  Corn, 

3.  Breeding  of  Corn. 

4.  Some  practical  uses  of  the  crop  on  the  farm. 

With  the  exception  of  the  last  point  all  of  these  have  the  yield 
of  corn  in  mind.  The  fourth  aims  at  the  utilization  of  the  crop  in  a 
practical  manner.  By  far  the  largest  of  these  subjects  is  the  third 
for  if  the  blood  lines  of  the  corn  crop  are  neglected  there  will  be 
little  or  no  yield.  And  there  is  the  interrelation  of  the  first  two  sub- 
jects and  the  third,  for  in  this  day  we  know  that  some  crops  of  corn 
are  resistant  to  certain  diseases.  This  sort  is  in  contrast  to  that 
which  is  subject  to  all  diseases.  An  investigation  has  shown  that  a 
great  deal  of  a  corn  crop's  ability  to  resist  diseases  and  insects  is 
due  to  the  blood  lines  of  the  parents.  Then  it  is  not  infrequent  to 
find  diseases  entering  where  insects  have  already  been.  So  there  are 
interrelations  existing  between  all  of  these  subjects  and  instead  of 
four  as  we  thought  we  were  going  to  have  there  is  but  the  one: 
Corn.  But  that  is  a  big  one.  "We  are  splitting  it  as  best  we  can  for 
the  purpose  of  study. 


184 


CORN 


PLATE  1. -Smut  on  Corn. 


CORN  185 

DISEASES  OF  CORN. 

Smut. 

Corn  Smut  is  known  by  the  scientists,  who  have  been  trying  for 
a  good  many  years  to  find  a  remedy  for  this  and  other  diseases  of 
plants,  as  Ustilago  zeae.  We  are  not  interested  in  this  name  except 
that  it  places  the  corn  smut  in  a  group  that  is  worth  noticing,  the 
fungus  diseases. 

Fungus  diseases  are  those  forms  of  plant  life  which  have  no 
green  coloring  matter  in  them,  which  are  extremely  small,  and  live 
at  the  expense  of  economic  plants.  There  are  many  of  them.  The 
rusts  of  small  grains  and  of  corn,  the  smuts  of  all  of  the  grains  and 
grasses,  the  moulds  of  many  of  the  plants,  some  of  the  blights,  and 
a  lot  of  other  diseases  are  due  to  these  colorless  plants  which  would 
not  be  able  to  exist  were  it  not  for  the  nourishment  they  receive 
from  the  plants  on  which  they  are  living.  Corn  smut  is  one  of  the 
most  common  of  these  fungus  diseases. 

It  is  common,  and  as  a  result  it  is  very  familiar  to  every  culti- 
vator of  the  soil.  For  the  ordinary  years  there  is  little  loss  due  to 
this  disease  but  some  years  the  decrease  may  be  over  fifty  per  cent. 
This  is  not  a  large  figure  when  one  is  speaking  of  some  of  the  other 
cereals  but  with  corn,  or  with  any  crop  for  that  matter,  the  loss  is 
too  great  to  pass  by  without  a  thought.  In  the  United  States  it 
would  represent  several  millions  of  dollars  annually.  The  preva- 
lence of  the  disease  is  due  to  a  large  extent  on  the  season,  but  the 
soil  will  also  influence  it.  Good  corn  soil  will  usually  show  more 
smut  on  the  crop  than  poor  soil. 

Smut  may  be  found  anywhere  on  the  plant.  It  will  affect  the 
tender  parts  first,  or  the  parts  that  have  been  injured.  Fungus  dis- 
eases are  transmitted  by  what  are  known  as  spores.  Spores  are  not 
the  same  as  seeds  but  they  accomplish  much  the  same  function.  In 
most  cases  the  spores  are  light  and  easily  blown  about  by  the  wind. 
That  is  true  with  the  corn  smut  spores.  To  start  with  the  spores  as 
they  are  produced  on  the  plant,  it  is  noticed,  if  the  development  is 
carefully  followed,  that  these  spore  masses  find  lodgment  in  wet 
ground,  or  in  a  manure  pile  somewhere  and  there  they  remain  until 
they  are  furnished  the  proper  conditions  for  development,  which 
are  mainly  heat  and  moisture.  As  soon  as  the  proper  conditions 
are  supplied  more  spores  are  made  by  the  growth  of  the  fungus  and 


186  CORN 

these  are  blown  about  by  the  winds  to  the  corn  plant  where  an  op- 
portunity is  offered  for  their  further  growth.  Here  they  are  usual- 
ly found  in  masses  on  the  joints  or  on  the  ears.  The  reason  that  the 
joint  is  so  frequently  infected  is  that  the  tender  growing  part  is  at 
that  place.    It  is  the  weakest. 

"When  the  plant  is  first  affected,  on  the  leaf  or  stem  will  appear 
white  or  brownish  spots.  These  soon  develop  into  much  larger  por- 
tions in  which  are  numerous  spores.  The  disease  is  entirely  local. 
That  is  it  will  not  spread  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  the  other. 
But  it  grows  rapidly  on  the  new  and  tender  parts  of  the  plant  upon 
which  it  is  feeding.  The  mycelium  of  the  fungus  plants,  which  cor- 
responds to  the  stems  and  branches  of  a  tree,  spread  in  all  directions 
through  the  tissue  of  the  corn  plant  and  develop  new  spores  which 
find  their  way  to  manure  piles  for  redevelopment  and  will  remain 
inactive  until  such  time  as  the  weather  makes  possible  the  maximum 
growth  of  corn.  Such  weather  means  growth  of  smut  as  well.  In 
three  weeks  time  there  will  likely  be,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, a  complete  cycle.  The  corn  smut  will  have  been  in  the 
ground  because  it  was  plowed  under  only  a  slight  distance,  or  be- 
cause nearby  was  a  manure  heap.  Spores  will  be  blown  from  such 
places  to  the  corn  plant,  and  there  the  weaker  parts  will  develop 
into  the  black  masses  so  common  throughout  the  corn  belt.  These 
spores  in  turn  will  be  deposited  in  the  soil  or  the  manure  heap  to  go 
through  the  same  process  just  as  often  as  the  weather  will  permit. 

The  question  arises:  Are  these  smutted  stalks  and  ears  of  any 
value  as  food  for  the  animals  for  which  corn  was  intended?  There 
has  been  a  great  deal  of  work  done  along  that  line.  The  following 
table  will  give  the  relative  value  from  the  chemical  standpoint  of 
the  corn  smut,  corn  stalk,  and  corn  fodder: 

"Water  Protein  Fat  Starches  Fiber  Ash 

Corn  Smut    8.3  13.1  1.4         29.6  24.7  22.5 

Corn    10.9  10.5  5.4        69.6          2.1  1.5 

Corn  Stalk    68.4  1.9  .5         17.0  11.0  1.2 

Corn  Fodder   42.2  4.5  1.6        34.7  14.3  2.7 

This  shows  what  the  smut  may  be  expected  to  contain,  but  it 
does  not  show  what  its  real  feeding  value  is.  That  has  been  the 
difficult  matter  before  the  scientists,  and  there  is  no  definite  state- 


CORN  187 

ment  from  them  yet.    Myriek  in  his  Book  of  Corn  makes  the  follow- 
ing statement : 

Experimental  evidence  goes  to  show  that  danger  from  eating 
corn  smut  is  very  slight,  if  indeed,  there  is  any  at  all,  and  that  the 
harm  may  be  more  reasonably  referred  to  other  causes.  In  1784  the 
distinguished  French  investigator,  Imhof,  experimented  upon  him- 
self by  taking  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  spores  before  break- 
fast every  morning  for  a  fortnight,  also  applying  the  spores  to  a 
wound  on  the  hand  and  employing  them  as  snuff,  without  experi- 
encing the  slightest  harm  or  ill  effects.  Other  early  experimental- 
ists and  many  recent  ones  have  tried  experiments  both  on  man  and 
animals,  and  with  one  or  two  exceptions  no  injury  resulted.  In 
these  trials  cows,  which  are  thought  to  be  the  chief  sufferers,  have 
been  fed  on  smut  for  weeks,  often  as  much  as  ten  pounds  or  half 
a  bushel  daily  during  the  latter  part  of  the  time,  without  showing 
symptoms  of  injury  in  any  particular,  and  with  every  appearance  of 
being  well  fed  on  an  acceptable  and  nutritious  food.  Some  of  the 
cows  were  pregnant. 

Chemical  tests,  and  physiological  studies  with  fluid  extract  of 
smut  however,  appear  to  show  that  it  contains  small  quantities  of 
a  narcotic  substance,  which  taken  in  concentrated  form  may  act 
upon  the  nerve  center  and  affect  certain  reflex  movements,  especial- 
ly those  of  respiration.  It  appears  possible  to  cause  death  with  it, 
but  unless  that  happens  the  effects  of  even  large  doses  soon  disap- 
pear and  no  harm  follows.  That  it  is  ever  possible  for  an  animal  to 
eat  enough  of  the  smut  as  found  in  the  field  to  produce  death  seems 
highly  improbable,  unless  in  the  possible  rare  cases  of  a  very  sus- 
ceptible individual. 

There  are  two  ways  smut  will  reduce  the  profits  from  the  crop, 
and  so  whether  it  will  affect  the  animals  or  not  the  fact  that  it  saps 
the  vitality  from  the  young  part  of  the  plant  on  which  it  is  growing, 
and  the  fact  that  smut  spores  will  take  up  the  place  designed  for 
an  ear  and  thus  make  the  stalk  barren,  is  sufficient  reason  for  at- 
tempting a  remedy. 

Prevention  is  better  than  cure.  If  careless  work  about  the  farm 
has  left  this  disease  in  the  old  manure  or  in  damp  ground,  and  the 
season  happens  to  be  cloudy  and  damp  with  a  few  winds  blowing 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  disease  being  very  widespread. 


188  CORN 

Smut  cannot  be  prevented,  however,  by  the  same  treatment 
that  will  cure  the  smut  of  small  grains.  The  reason  is  plain.  The 
seat  of  the  disease  is  not  affected  by  the  formalin  which  will  kill  the 
smut  of  oats.  Let  us  follow  the  diseases  through.  Oats  is  affected 
by  a  smut  spore  falling  on  the  grain  before  it  is  planted.  Now  bear 
in  mind  that  this  is  an  entirely  different  kind  of  smut  from  the  corn 
smut  and  both  these  are  different  from  that  found  on  other  cereals. 
In  other  words  each  grain  or  grass  has  a  smut  of  its  own  which  will 
not  affect  any  other  of  the  grains  or  grasses.  Oats  and  wheat  are 
cured  of  smut  by  the  use  of  what  is  known  as  the  formalin  treat- 
ment. But  to  follow  the  spore  after  it  lodges  on  the  grain  of  oat :  As 
soon  as  the  seed  begins  to  germinate  the  spore  begins  to  grow  too, 
and  it  grows  up  through  the  center  of  the  fresh  and  growing  stem 
of  the  plant,  keeping  pace  with  the  plant  to  the  end.  As  soon  as  the 
plant  begins  to  head  out  the  smut  plant  begins  to  develop  spores  in 
the  same  place  that  the  plant  desires  to  develop  kernels  and  by  this 
procedure  the  yield  of  the  cereal  is  greatly  reduced.  Now  if  it  were 
possible  to  stop  the  spore  before  it  begins  to  grow  up  through  the 
stem  of  the  plant  the  cure  would  be  effected.  And  that  is  just  what 
the  formalin  treatment  does  when  it  stops  the  spore  from  developing 
by  killing  it  as  it  lies  in  the  folds  of  the  grain. 

But  in  the  ease  of  corn  the  cure  must  be  something  entirely  dif- 
ferent for  the  reason  that  the  corn  smut  does  not  spread  by  develop- 
ing up  through  the  center  of  the  plant.  It  attacks  the  plant  from 
the  outside.  The  only  method  that  will  get  rid  of  the  corn  smut, 
then,  is  that  which  will  get  rid  of  the  spores  before  they  reach  the 
growing  corn.  If  the  spores  can  be  hindered  in  developing,  the 
work  will  be  accomplished.  And  so  the  advice  is  usually  given  to 
do  away  with  the  manure  heaps  and  the  low  places  on  the  farm 
where  these  spores  which  attack  the  corn  plant  develop  so  rapidly. 
If  the  disease  is  very  bad,  cut  stalks  which  are  affected,  from  the 
field  and  burn  them.  Prevent  rather  than  cure.  But  do  not  try  the 
scheme  of  soaking  the  corn  grains  in  formalin.    It  won 't  work. 

Rust. 

Rust  is  a  disease  that  distinctly  reduces  the  yield  of  all  of  the 
small  grains,  but  its  effect  upon  the  yield  of  corn  is  not  marked.  It 
is  distinguished  by  small  spots  on  the  leaves,  often  reddish  in  color. 


CORN 


189 


These  spots  are  caused  by  spores  j  so  that  is  another  of  the  fungus 
diseases.  It  grows  most  rapidly  in  the  humid  sections,  but  there  is 
little  damage  from  it  anywhere.  Since  it  does  so  little  harm  there 
has  never  been  a  remedy  suggested.  It  is  also  true  that  after  many 
years  of  close  work  on  the  part  of  many  scientists  no  cure  for  the 
rusts  of  the  small  grains  has  ever  been  discovered.  It  is  not  likely 
that  the  rust  on  corn  will  ever  cause  the  same  interest  that  the  simi- 
lar disease  has  with  the  small  grains. 


Other  Diseases. 

Other  diseases  affect  the  growth  of  the  corn  crop,  but  these  are 
few  and  unimportant.  Corn  is  disease  free.  But  on  the  other  hand 
there  are  many  insects  that  are  continually  baffling  the  best  thought 
of  the  country.  A  few  of  these  will  be  the  study  for  the  next  few 
pages. 


PLATE  2.— Forms  of  Wireworms. 

INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  CORN. 
Wire  Worms. 

There  is  no  insect  which  works  as  widely  and  does  so  much 
damage  as  the  Wire  Worm.  It  is  the  most  common  of  all  corn  in- 
sects. Almost  everyone  knows  what  is  affecting  the  fields  when  the 
corn  either  fails  to  come  up  or  dies  by  turning  yellow  and  withering. 

The  wire  worm  is  reddish,  with  hard,  smooth  shiny  back, 
cylindrical,  and  with  six  legs.     When  it  affects  the  kernel  it  bur- 


190  CORN 

rows  its  head  into  the  grain,  and  then  eats  all  the  way  through  the 
kernel,  sometimes  taking  out  the  entire  inside  of  the  kernel.  "When 
the  worms  affect  the  plants  they  usually  bore  through  the  root  parts 
of  the  stem  and  so  destroy  the  feeding  connections.  They  are  com- 
mon on  ground  that  has  been  in  grass  for  several  years,  and  the  sec- 
ond year  after  sod  they  are  usually  at  their  worst.  The  reason  for 
this  is  the  fact  that  the  wire  worm  will  remain  in  the  ground  two  or 
more  years  before  changing  to  the  beetle  form.  The  worms  as  long 
as  the  grass  lasts  have  that  to  feed  upon  but  when  the  corn  comes 
and  the  grass  goes  completely,  as  it  does,  then  corn  is  the  plant  that 
suffers.  Of  course  the  worm  working  in  a  large  number  of  plants 
as  is  found  in  a  grass  field  will  not  be  noticed  as  readily  as  when  it 
works  in  a  corn  field  of  scattering  plants.  And  since  each  individual 
plant  of  corn  means  more  financially  than  a  grass  plant,  wire  worms 
become  of  great  interest. 

There  are  several  of  these  corn  wire  worms  but  they  all  re- 
semble each  other.  There  is  little  chance  of  mistaking  any  of  the 
order  for  those  of  another.  They  will  vary  in  length  when  full 
grown,  from  a  half  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half,  but  the  same  slender 
body  almost  devoid  of  hairs,  reddish  in  color,  and  divided  into  dis- 
tinct segments  characterize  them  all.  Their  life  history  is  similar. 
They  change  into  the  dormant  stage  in  July.  In  about  four  or  five 
weeks  they  change  into  the  beetle  stage  and  are  commonly  known  as 
the  click  beetles  because  of  their  habit  of  jumping  into  the  air  with 
a  click  when  they  are  placed  on  their  backs.  Some  of  these  beetle 
forms  remain  in  the  ground,  others  seek  a  hiding  place.  They  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  spring,  usually  in  sod  ground.  From  this  point  on, 
the  history  of  the  insect  is  vague  but  the  fact  is  plain  that  it  devel- 
ops into  a  form  that  does  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  the  crops  of  the 
average  farm. 

What  the  best  remedy  is  is  a  question.  There  have  been  all  sorts 
of  poisons  suggested,  and  many  of  them  have  been  tried,  but  with- 
out success.  Traps  have  been  laid,  but  they  failed.  There  seems  to 
be  only  one  effective  way  of  meeting  the  average  insect  on  the  field 
of  action  and  that  is  by  systematic  rotation  of  crops.  One  writer 
suggests  that  if  there  were  interposed  between  the  grass  and  the 
corn  a  crop  that  was  not  susceptible  to  the  insect  the  problem  would 
be  solved.    But  that  is  easy  to  say.     There  are  few  economic  crops 


CORN  191 

that  will  resist  all  attempts  of  the  insects.    One  writer  (Myrick)  in 
commenting  on  this  says: 

"Even  a  clean  fallow  for  an  entire  season  will  not  starve  out  the 
worms,  and  neither  buckwheat,  mustard,  nor  rape  crops,  frequently 
recommended  to  clear  the  earth  of  wire"  worms,  will  accomplish  the 
desired  results.  Salt  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,600  pounds  per  acre,  a 
heavy  dressing,  neither  drives  the  wire  worms  deeper  into  the  soil 
nor  causes  them  to  migrate  to  any  appreciable  distance.  Kainit  used 
as  a  fertilizer  in  very  large  quantities  has  little  effect  if  any  on  the 
worms.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Muriate  of  Potash  and  cloride  of 
lime.     Gas  lime  is  capable  of  destroying  the  worms  but  has  to  be 


PLATE  3.- Parent  of  Wireworm. 


applied  in  such  large  quantities  as  to  be  impracticable  on  large 
areas.  The  most  promising  method  for  relief  is  crop  rotation,  in 
which  clover  follows  grass  and  is  itself  followed  by  corn.  Accord- 
ing to  this  plan  pastures  and  meadows  of  grass  might  lie  unchanged 
for  several  years,  being  plowed  when  broken  up  in  late  summer  or 
early  fall  and  sown  to  clover  in  the  spring,  either  with  oats  or  on 
winter  wheat  or  rye  sown  the  fall  before.  The  clover  should  be  al- 
lowed to  stand  the  second  year  and  might  be  followed  with  corn, 
with  positive  assurance  that  the  wire  worms  originally  in  the  sod 
would  by  that  time  have  entirely  disappeared." 


192  CORN 


Root  Worms. 


Now  comes  this  seeming  repetition  that  next  to  poor  seed,  the 
corn  root  worm  is  the  greatest  known  source  of  loss  to  the  corn  crop. 
This  seems  like  a  radical  statement  and  yet  in  the  corn  producing 
sections  where  rotations  are  followed  with  fair  consistency  this  is 
probably  true.  One  thing  about  this  insect  is  that  it  is  not  confined 
to  any  particular  section,  but  works  with  great  force  and  loss  wher- 
ever corn  is  raised.  A  test  was  conducted  in  1905  through  the  states 
of  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Missouri.  Five  hundred  representative  farms 
were  examined  to  detect  any  work  of  the  root  worm  in  the  corn 
fields.  Over  three  hundred  farms  showed  more  or  less  damage  from 
this  insect. 

The  reason  why  more  people  do  not  realize  the  damage  that  is 
coming  to  their  crops  every  year  from  the  root  worms  is  because  the 
work  of  the  insect  is  underground  and  because  the  pest  is  very 
small.    The  eggs  are  laid  the  first  part  of  September,  or  the  last  part 


PLATE  4.— Southern  Com  Root  Worm  Larva  (Enlarged). 

of  August  in  some  places,  and  remain  dormant  until  the  next  spring, 
June  or  July,  when  they  develop  into  full  form.  "When  fully  de- 
veloped the  insect  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  no 
larger  around  than  a  pin.  The  worms  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched 
begin  to  bore  back  and  forth  in  the  roots  of  the  corn  plant  just 
under  the  outside  covering.  Sometimes  only  one  worm  will  be  found 
in  a  root,  but  often  there  will  be  as  high  as  six  or  seven  worms  to 
the  root.  The  effect  of  this  work  is  plain.  The  roots  drop  off  until 
there  remains  nothing  but  .stubs,  and  of  course  these  do  not  offer 
sufficient  nourishment  for  the  growing  plant,  and  it  is  dwarfed. 
When  a  high  wind  or  heavy  rain  comes  the  corn  is  easily  beaten  to 
the  ground,  where  it  remains;  for  the  strength  in  the  plant  roots  is 
not  sufficient  to  raise  it. 

Along  in  August  the  worm  reaches  its  complete  development 
when  it  becomes  a  small  beetle,  which  turns  from  the  light  color  it 
first  bears  to  a  deep  green  color.    This  beetle  feeds  on  injured  parts 


CORN 


193 


of  the  corn  plant,  being  able,  of  course,  to  distribute  its  evil  to  many 
places.  It  is  noticed  that  the  worm  is  found  most  where  the  rota- 
tion has  been  neglected,  and  especially  on  those  fields  where  corn 
has  been  raised  continuously  for  several  years. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  detect  this  root  worm  in  the  field.  In  the 
first  place  the  corn  will  show  a  stunted  growth  just  during  the  sea- 
son when  it  should  be  growing  the  best.  Then  if  the  roots  are  broken 
open  the  worms  will  be  easily  noted.  Even  before  the  roots  are 
broken  they  present  a  darkened  appearance.  Then  even  if  the  corn 
has  come  along  alright  up  to  the  heavy  storms,  the  fact  that  it 
lodges  badly  would  indicate  that  the  roots  may  be  affected.     The 


PLATE  5. -Southern  Corn  Root  Worm  (Enlarged). 


corn  may  be  easily  pulled,  or  it  may  fire  easily,  or  beetles  of  a  deep 
green  color  may  be  seen  during  August,  or  some  peculiar  cases  of 
late  maturity  may  be  seen  and  all  due  to  the  bugs. 

Clover  is  the  best  remedy.  How  hard  it  is  for  some  farmers  to 
grow  that  crop.  But  that  is  what  the  land  needs.  Do  not  grow  corn 
more  than  two  years  in  succession  on  a  piece  'of  land.  Seed  it  down 
to  clover,  mixed  perhaps  with  some  other  good  grass  and  let  the 
corn  grow  on  the  land  where  it  is  needed.  Rotation  of  crops  solves 
a  lot  of  difficult  problems  on  the  farm  where  the  soil  is  giving  poor 
returns. 


194 


CORN 


Cut  Worms. 

Cut  worms  are  damaging  the  crop  every  year  especially  in  cer- 
tain sections.  Those  sections  in  particular  are  those  where  crimson 
clover  or  some  similar  crop  is  plowed  under  in  the  spring.  This 
practice  allows  the  worms  to  feast  upon  the  green  leaves  under  the 
ground  until  the  corn  is  ready  for  the  use  of  the  insects  and  then  the 
worms  change  their  place  of  work.  Cut  worms  are  bad  wherever 
the  sod  that  has  been  plowed  under  has  not  been  completely  rotted, 
and  so  they  are  quite  widely  distributed  over  the  country,  although 
not  so  much  so  as  some  of  the  other  insects. 

The  moths  that  are  the  parents  of  these  worms  are  varied,  for 
there  are  many  species.    The  female,  under  ordinary  conditions,  lays 


77   PLATE  6.— Adult  Moth  and  Cutworm,     a.  Moth;  b.  Larva;  c.  Larva,  top  view."" 


her  eggs  in  grass  lands,  but  other  places  as  the  weedy  road  sides  re- 
ceive a  due  share.  These  eggs  develop  in  the  summer  or  late  fall 
and  the  worms  greedily  feed  upon  any  green  vegetation  that  hap- 
pens to  be  near  by. 

The  lack  of  choicfe  of  food  on  the  part  of  the  worms  makes  many 
kinds  of  losses.  Any  sweet  substance  will  attract  them.  Upon  that 
fact  is  based  the  trap  that  is  used.  This  is  made  of  bran  and  molas- 
ses. The  worms  will  eat  bran  alone  but  when  molasses  is  added  they 
will  leave  other  material  for  it.    So  by  poisoning  this  bran  a  great 


CORN  195 

many  of  the  worms  may  be  ridded  out.  But  too  often  this  is  after 
the  damage  is  done.  And  then  to  carry  out  this  remedy  on  a  large 
scale  would  be  out  of  the  question.  The  following  directions  are 
given  only  where  the  corn  is  of  little  acreage. 

Wheat  bran,  fifty  pounds;  molasses,  two  quarts;  paris  green, 
one  pound ;  and  enough  w^ater  to  make  a  thick  mash.  The  best  man- 
ner for  mixing  this  is  to  first  mix  thoroughly  the  paris  green  and  the 
bran.  Add  the  molasses  after  it  has  been  diluted  with  some  water. 
Stir  thoroughly.  Then  add  the  water  until  the  mixture  is  of  the 
proper  consistency.  It  ought  to  be  like  dough.  In  applying  the 
remedy  place  a  teaspoonful  in  a  place,  near  each  hill.  Apply  toward 
the  evening.  Of  course  where  there  is  any  area  to  cover,  this  cannot 
be  followed.  And  the  danger  that  accompanies  this  treatment  is 
that  some  of  the  chickens  or  the  turkeys,  if  they  are  where  they  can 
get  at  the  bran  and  the  poison,  will  be  killed. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  any  undesirable  deaths.  If  after 
the  bran  is  applied  the  land  is  given  a  light  cultivation  there  will  be 
no  further  trouble.  In  most  cases  it  is  possible  to  keep  the  chickens 
out  of  the  field  a  day  or  two. 


Corn  Root  Aphis. 

The  Corn  Root  Aphis  is  another  of  the  destructive  insects  of  the 
corn  crop.  These  insects  are  very  small  and  so  go  unnoticed  so 
often  that  the  true  extent  of  their  damage  is  unknown.  They  are 
smaller  than  the  point  of  a  pencil,  are  blue  green  in  color,  and  when 
they  are  noticed  on  the  corn  roots  they  are  seen  in  clusters.  They 
are  always  associated  with  ants,  without  which  they  would  not  be 
of  much  account  and  for  which  they  are  very  beneficial.  The  ants 
convey  them  to  the  place  where  there  is  new  food.  Seemingly  in 
return  the  lice  permit  the  ants  to  use  a  sweetish  substance  which 
they  exude  from  their  bodies.  The  lice  get  their  nourishment  from 
the  juices  of  the  corn  roots.  They  bore  through  the  outside  cover- 
ings of  the  roots  and  then  suck  on  the  sap. 

The  corn  root  louse  is  likewise  found  on  land  where  there  has 
been  little  system  of  rotation.  It  is  strange  that  so  many  evils  fol- 
low bad  methods  of  farming.  And  yet  it  is  not  strange  for  all  of  the 
laws  of  nature  work  that  way.    The  man  who  neglects  the  laws  of 


196 


CORN 


nature  all  the  time  stands  a  greater  chance  of  some  evil  than  tlie 
man  who  has  been  careful.  The  man  who  never  steals  is  the  man 
who  does  not  get  behind  the  prison  bars.  And  so  in  agriculture  there 
are  punishments  for  the  misdoings  of  us  farmers.  Whatsoever  we 
sow,  that  we  must  reap.  Take  for  example  in  the  southern  states 
where  cotton  has  been  king  for  so  many  years.  What  is  the  condi- 
tion there?  Why,  the  Cotton  Boll  Weevil  is  driving  the  people  out 
of  the  country,  and  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  farming  popula- 
tion did  not  rotate  their  crops.  That  is  what  is  causing  so  many  peo- 
ple to  grow  corn~where  cotton  has  been  grown.    That  is  why  the  ex- 


PLATE  7.— The  Corn  Root  Louse,  Wingless  Female  (greatly  enlarged);  a,  Tip  of  Abdomen  (more 
enlarged  K 


periment  stations  are  pleading  for  the  people  to  produce  pork.  And 
once  the  people  begin  the  production  of  pork  the  north  will  have  a 
difficult  time  to  compete,  for  the  southern  conditions  are  ideal  for 
the  forage  crops,  that  added  to  the  ration  of  corn,  will  produce  hogs 
at  a  much  cheaper  gain  than  in  the  north.  And  all  of  whatever  hap- 
pens in  the  next  twenty-five  years  will  have  been  due  to  the  insect 
which  was  caused  by  poor  farming.  The  only  remedy  is  to  change 
the  methods  of  farming.  That  is  what  the  south  is  doing  and  that 
is  what  the  north  will  have  to  do  if  such  insect  pests  as  the  corn  root 
louse  is  controlled. 


CORN 


197 


There  is  another  remedy  that  may  help.  It  is  rather  a  preven- 
tive measure.  There  are  few  cures  for  these  pests  after  they  are 
once  bothering.  That  is  to  drain  the  land,  and  keep  it  free  from 
weeds.  The  lice  live  on  the  corn  as  long  as  there  is  fresh  tissue.  But 
when  the  roots  of  the  corn  plant  become  a  little  tough  these  insects 
shift  to  whatever  is  handy.  Too  frequently  weeds  are  handy.  Then 
the  lice  remain  there  until  another  supply  of  plentiful  corn  is  at 
hand.  Low  ground  usually  has  more  weeds  than  higher  places, 
hence  the  benefit  of  drainage. 

The  lice  may  remain  on  the  plant  roots  sometime,  as  was  said, 
but  they  do  very  little  damage  late  in  the  development  of  the  corn 


PLATE  8.— Corn  Root  Louse,  Winged  Female  (greatly  enlarged). 


plant.  It  is  during  the  early  life  of  the  plant  that  the  lice  do  the 
damage  that  so  reduces  the  yield.  The  dwarfing  of  the  plants, 
especially  in  spots  of  the  field  here  and  there,  and  the  change  of 
color  from  green  to  a  reddish  yellow  are  good  indications  that  the 
louse  is  at  work.  The  presence  of  ants  may  well  arouse  suspicions. 
Lice  later  in  the  season  will  cause  the  crop  to  be  later  maturing  than 
natural. 

Professor  Forbes,  one  of  the  greatest  entomologists  of  the  coun- 
try who  has  done  most  of  his  work  in  Illinois,  suggests  a  complete 
change  of  crops  with  the  hope  that  the  corn,  when  it  is  planted  on 
land  where  other  crops  have  been  grown  for  some  time,  will  have 
very  little  if  any  bother  from  this  pest.    Clean  cultivation  in  the  low 


198  CORN 

places  will  help  some.  Fertilizers  are  sometimes  applied  directly  to 
the  hills  affected  or  to  all  hills  with  the  expectation  that  the  result- 
ing plants  will  be  more  nearly  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the 
lice.  If  the  ground  is  harrowed  before  the  corn  is  up  the  weeds  will 
be  checked  and  with  them  the  lice,  and  then  besides  the  help  from 
this  source  the  ground  will  be  immensely  benefitted  by  the  cultiva- 
tion. The  destruction  of  the  ants  during  the  late  fall  or  early  win- 
ter is  thought  to  be  of  a  great  deal  of  benefit.  The  idea  is  to  get  rid 
of  the  ants  by  destroying  their  eggs  by  freezing,  which  can  be  ac- 
complished if  the  hills  are  overthrown.  It  may  be  found  worth  while 
to  hold  off  planting  until  late,  but  this  has  so  many  attendant  evils 


PLATE  9.-  The  Army  Worm.     Moth  above,  Pupa  below  and  Eggs  in  natural  position  in  a  grass 
leaf —all  natural  size. 

other  than  insect  perils  that  such  a  practice  could  not  be  universally 
advised. 

In  other  words,  these  insect  pests  are  not  easily  removed,  once 
they  get  a  foothold. 

Army  Worm. 

The  Army  Worm  is  prepared  to  develop  rapidly.  It  too  de- 
mands rapid  work  for  its  extermination.  The  female  often  lays  as 
many  as  600  eggs,  and  these  may  be  found  any  where  from  the  gable 
of  a  roof  to  the  under  side  of  a  straw  pile.  The  adult  moth  is  brown 
in  color,  just  slightly  spotted.  Naturally  these  insects  thrive  in  the 
grass  family,  and  it  will  be  recalled  that  corn  is  a  member  of  that 
large  family.    About    eight    days    after  the  eggs  are  laid  they  are 


CORN  199 

hatehed,  and  the  young  worms  begin  at  once  to  feed.  But  they  do 
not  do  so  openly.  They  hide  during  the  day,  and  so  are  not  seen 
without  a  search.  They  move  in  armies  and  will  sometimes  devas- 
tate a  whole  field  or  section  of  the  country.  After  attaining  full  size 
they  go  to  the  ground  where  they  again  become  moths.  More  eggs 
are  laid,  more  worms  are  developed,  and  more  destruction  takes 
place.  There  may  be  as  high  as  three  broods  each  year.  Nature  has 
provided  a  natural  check  for  this  pest  in  the  form  of  another  in- 
sect which  lives  on  these  worms  while  they  are  on  the  march.  But 
the  killing  is  not  thorough  enough  in  most  cases,  so  man  has  devised 
the  scheme  of  a  trench  where,  as  the  worms  arrive,  they  remain ;  for 
they  cannot  climb  the  rough  ground.  As  soon  as  there  are  sufficient 
numbers  in  the  trench  they  are  killed  by  kerosene  or  some  other 
poison. 

The  worm  is  easily  told  from  others  by  its  movement  which  cor- 
responds to  a  measuring  worm,  and  by  a  naked  broad  stripe  on  each 
side  of  the  body  for  the  entire  length.  If  the  worms  are  young  there 
may  be  a  slight  variation,  but  not  enough  to  deceive  the  spectator  as 
to  what  the  worm  hajDpens  to  be.  Their  work  is  that  of  stripping 
the  plants  of  their  foliage. 

Corn  Worms. 

Just  what  this  insect  will  be  called  depends  upon  the  locality 
where  it  is  being  discussed.  It  is  known  as  the  Ear  Worm,  The  Cot- 
ton Boll  worm,  the  Tomato  Worm,  and  the  Tobacco  Bud  worm.  It 
is  more  an  insect  of  the  south  and  yet  all  parts  of  the  north  have  felt 
its  power  in  destroying  the  yields  of  good  marketable  corn.  The 
worm  is  a  sort  of  a  green  in  color,  sometimes  almost  brown,  with 
stripes  of  the  same  color  running  the  length  of  the  body.  There  are 
as  many  as  five  broods  during  a  season  in  some  of  the  southern 
states.  The  eggs  that  are  first  laid  are  placed  on  the  leaves  where, 
when  they  hatch,  the  worms  begin  to  eat  of  the  fresh  green  plant 
substance.  But  the  brood  that  affects  the  ear  is  the  one  that  has  the 
eggs  laid  on  the  silks  of  the  ears.  As  soon  as  the  worms  appear  they 
begin  to  eat  of  the  silks,  working  toward  the  ears.  They  work  them- 
selves in  between  the  husks  and  the  kernels  and  begin  to  eat  the 
kernels  themselves.  Sometimes  they  are  not  after  all  of  the  kernels 
but  just  eat  the  best  part  and  keep  on  circling  the  ear.    When  the 


200 


CORN 


ear  is  opened  the  worm  is  bedded  in  the  kernels.  Very  often  these 
worms  will  be  dead  and  rotted  so  that  the  corn  is  anything  but  mar- 
ketable after  it  is  husked.  Some  of  the  adults,  however,  take  them- 
selves to  the  ground  where  they  prepare  for  another  generation. 

Sweet  corn  is  more  commonly  affected  than  field  corn.  Yet  the 
loss  to  field  corn  is  considerable  everywhere.  Sweet  corn  is  often 
used  as  a  trap  crop,  from  which  the  worms  can  be  taken  and  burned 
before  the  other  corn  has  been  affected.    Hand  picking  of  the  worms 


PLATE  10.— The  Corn  Worm  {Heliothis  Armiger).    a.  Adult  Moth;  b,  Dark  Full  Grown  Larva; 
c,  Light  Colored  Full  Grown  Larva;  d,  Pupa— natural  size. 

is  also  practiced.  And  fall  plowing  will  throw  up  the  dormant 
forms  of  the  insects  and  subject  them  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 
Of  course  where  corn  follows  corn  only  a  limited  amount  of  fall 
plowing  can  be  practiced. 


White  Grub. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  White  Grub,  although  some  of  the 
other  insects  are  little  known.     At  least  everyone  is  familiar  with 


CORN  201 

the  June  Bug,  or  May  Beetle,  which  is  merely  one  of  the  stages  of 
the  "White  Grub.  Corn  is  one  of  the  crops  which  this  pest  attacks. 
The  adults,  which  are  the  June  Bugs,  are  hatched  from  eggs 
that  are  laid  in  grass  lands.  They  are  really  beetles,  with  their  hard 
backs,  and  brown  color  which  is  very  characteristic.  As  soon  as  the 
male:  and  female  pair,  the  males  die  and  the  females  begin  to  lay 
their  eggs,  which  operation  is  not  completed  until  the  latter  part  of 
June.  These  eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground  all  the  way  from  two  to 
four  inches  deep.    They  hatch  in  about  fifteen  days. 

The  effect  on  the  crop  of  corn  may  be  great  or  little.  Whole 
crops  have  been  destroyed  by  this  insect.  The  grubs  begin  to  work 
as  soon  as  the  corn  is  ready  for  them.  The  fact  that  they  work  on 
the  roots  causes  the  crop  to  poorly  withstand  the  dry  weather  condi- 


PLATE  11.— White  Grub,  Young  of  the  June  Beetle  (enlarged). 

tions.  For  the  grub  may  have  destroyed  the  best  parts  of  the  root. 
It  is  easy  to  detect  the  work  of  this  insect.  The  plants  when  they 
are  pulled  from  the  ground  will  show  roots  that  are  eaten  away  and 
no  other  insect  works  in  just  that  manner.  And  then,  if  the  ground 
around  the  affected  portion  be  plowed  or  spaded,  a  lot  of  the  grubs 
will  likely  be  unearthed. 

Since  it  is  true  that  the  eggs  are  most  frequently  laid  in  grass 
lands,  the  grubs  are  most  frequently  found  where  corn  has  followed 
sod.  From  the  standpoint  of  avoiding  this  insect  alone  it  would  be 
much  better  to  follow  clover,  small  grain,  or  even  corn  itself  than  to 
use  sod  land.  Clover  is  free  from  injury  by  this  insect  and  so  it  is 
a  good  crop  to  insert  between  the  grass  and  the  corn.  And  then 
think  of  the  nitrogen  that  the  clover  is  bringing  to  the  land.  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  advises  turning  hogs  into  the  pasture  after  plowing  it 


202  CORN 

for  corn,  but  this  is  practical  only  where  the  ground  is  plowed  be- 
fore the  first  of  October  or  later  than  the  first  of  April,  for  the  grub 
beetles  are  deep  in  the  ground  during  the  winter  season  and  the 
hogs  would  never  touch  the  spot  otherwise.  It  is  desirable,  if  the 
prevention  of  the  egg  laying  in  June  is  regarded,  to  keep  the  land 
free  from  weeds.  Vegetation  of  any  sort  is  an  attraction  to  these 
beetles. 

Clover  is  the  best  remedy.    There  seems  to  be  no  patent  device. 
Fall  plowing  will  sometimes  help  in  getting  rid  of  these  pests,  and' 
kerosene  if  applied  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  proportions 
will  get  rid  of  the  grubs  on  a  small  scale  but  there  is  no  medicine 
treatment  for  the  large  fields. 

Chinch  Bug. 

And  who  has  not  heard  of  the  Chinch  Bug?  No  one.  Probably 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  insect  attacks  crops  in  widely  different 
localities. 

There  are  no  stated  seasons  when  this  insect  will  work.  It 
seems  to  come  and  go  like  the  locusts.  But  when  it  does  attack  the 
crop  no  mercy  is  shown.  The  plants  will  wilt  from  a  loss  of  th'e  sap 
from  their  veins,  and  the  whole  field  will  look  deserted.  While  the 
other  cereals  are  attacked,  corn  is  liked  as  well  as  any  of  them  and 
so  suffers  much  from  the  Chinch  Bug.  As  soon  as  the  wheat  crop 
has  been  cut  the  bugs  will  proceed  to  travel  on  foot  to  the  nearest 
corn  field.  It  is  a  common  sight  in  the  west  to  see  whole  droves  of 
these  bugs  going  to  one  place.  The  method  for  trapping  them  is  to 
dig  a  trench  with  a  plow.  Make  it  about  eight  inches  deep.  Drag 
a  log  along  the  length  so  that  a  fine  powder  will  be  on  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow.  The  insects  are  unable  to  manage  themselves  in  that 
dust  and  so  are  trapped.  Other  blockades  are  suggested,  such  as 
tar.  The  bugs  will  run  up  and  down  the  tar  strip  but  will  not  at- 
tempt to  cross.  Post  holes,  every  so  often,  will  furnish  a  trap.  A 
great  deal  of  care  should  be  taken  to  have  no  rubbish  or  loose  straw 
over  the  boundary  strip.  Methods  of  treating  the  individual  hills 
have  been  tried  with  some  degree  of  success.  Kerosene  emulsion  is 
the  best  remedy  where  a  drug  is  planned. 

The  method  of  prevention  is  to  keep  the  rubbish  away  from  the 
premises.    Then  there  will  be  little  chance  for  winter  quarters. 


CORN 


203 


The  entire  corn  plant  is  affected  when  the  chinch  bug  conies. 
These  bugs  are  reddish  brown  with  a  light  strip  just  across  the  back 
from  side  to  side.  The  red  color  is  common  for  the  young  bugs.  As 
the  bugs  get  older  the  color  becomes  more  of  the  brown.  Just  the 
time  when  the  corn  begins  to  do  well  in  the  field  is  the  time  that  the 
bug  is  beginning  its  depredations.  The  yield  may  be  materially  re- 
duced ;  in  fact  it  may  be  nothing  at  all. 

Seed  Corn  Maggots. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  these  legless  individuals  that  affect  the 
corn  crop.  The  one  with  the  shiny  black  head  does  so  only  after  a 
grass  crop,  which  is  its  main  host.     The  other,  apparently,  has  no 


PLATE  12.— The  Seed  Corn  Maggot  (Phorbiafrcsciceps):  a,  Male  Fly,  dorsal  view;  h.  Female, 
lateral  view;  c,  Head  of  Female  from  above;  d.  Larva,  from  side;  e,  Anal  Segment  of  Larva; 
f,  Anal  Spiracles;  g,  Thoracic  Spiracles;  h,  Puparium— all  much  enlarged. 


head  and  works  on  corn  alone.  Both  work  in  exactly  the  same  way. 
The  kernel  after  it  is  placed  in  the  ground  becomes  softened  and  the 
maggots  enter.  They  eat  out  the  entire  inside,  the  mealy  part,  and 
then  change  into  the  next  form  in  their  life  history. 

In  this  study  of  insects  it  is  being  taken  for  granted  that  the 
student  understands  the  general  principles  of  insect  life.  There  are 
no  classes  of  animal  life  that  develop  in  the  same  way.  In  general  it 
may  be  said  that  there  is  one  stage  in  insect  life  where  the  animal  is 
dormant,  does  not  have  the  power  to  move ;  another  stage  where 
wings  are  noticed,  it  usually  is  able  to  fly;  another  stage  is  that  of 
the  worm,  having  the  ability  to  move  by   crawling.    Any   of   these 


204 


CORN 


CORN  205 

active  stages  may  be  the  destructive  one,  and  some  insects  may  not 
have  all  of  these  named  stages.  They  may  have  more  than  has  been 
named.  The  outline  form  that  is  here  given  applies  to  the  most  of 
the  insects  that  affect  corn. 

And  so  we  find  these  maggot  forms,  which  might  be  called  the 
worm  stage,  changing  into  other  forms.  The  first  named  maggot 
changes  into  a  two  winged  fly ;  the  second  changes  into  a  small 
black  gnat  like  a  mosquito.  With  this  insect  only  one  brood,  or 
transformation,  occurs  in  one  year.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
corn  worm  and  some  of  the  others  may  have  several  broods  during 
one  season. 

The  most  favorable  season  for  the  action  of  these  maggots  is 
that  in  which  there  is  a  great  deal  of  rain.  The  action  of  the  rain 
begins  to  rot  or  germinate  the  corn.  The  action  of  germination  is 
nothing  more  than  a  form  of  rotting.  Of  course  there  is  greater  op- 
portunity for  the  maggots  to  work  in  rotted  or  partly  germinated 
corn  and  so  they  do  well.  Sometimes  these  maggots  will  affect  only 
the  kernels  that  do  not  grow,  but  if  there  is  a  scarcity  they  will  af- 
fect anything,  even  the  partly  sprouted  stuff.  After  they  finish  their 
work  there  is  nothing  left  of  the  kernels  but  the  outer  hull,  for  they 
take  out  all  of  the  real  food. 

Some  fertilizers  are  said  to  kill  these  maggots.  Likewise  kero- 
sene is  recommended.  An  application  is  made  with  sand  as  the  med- 
ium. That  is  the  sand  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  kerosene 
and  placed  at  the  base  of  the  plants  just  at  the  time  when  the  adults 
would  be  laying  the  eggs.  This  it  is  claimed  will  kill  the  adults  and 
will  often  prevent  any  of  the  maggots  from  working  in  case  they 
have  already  hatched  out.  "When  the  maggots  have  become  appar- 
ent in  the  field  the  best  plan  is  to  pull  the  infested  plants  and  des- 
troy them.  This  system  works  very  successfully  with  many  of  the 
other  root  eating  insects. 

Grain  Moth. 

The  Angoumois  Grain  Moth  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  in- 
sects affecting  the  stored  grain  and  it  works  mainly  where  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  wheat  in  storage.  In  fact  the  wheat  and  the  corn 
kernels  are  the  main  ones  that  are  affected  with  it.  The  ear  of  corn 
looks,  after  the  insect  has  been  working,  as  if  there  had  been  a  lot 


206 


CORN 


of  little  nail  holes  made  in  each  kernel.  At  a  distance  it  seems  to 
have  been  spotted  with  round  black  dots  but  a  closer  inspection  will 
show  these  dots  to  be  holes  in  the  kernels. 

The  moths  lay  their  eggs  in  between  the  kernels  on  the  ear,  us- 
ually after  it  has  been  placed  in  storage.  The  eggs  develop  into  the 
worms  which  enter  the  kernels  at  the  tips.  These  worms  eat  out  the 
heart  of  the  kernels  and.  then  go  toward  the  croAvn  where  they  be- 
come dormant.  From  this  stage  the  adult  moth  emerges  near  the 
crown  leaving  the  holes  which  give  that  characteristic  appearance  to 
the  ears.  All  of  this  has  happened  in  about  six  weeks  but  if  the 
weather  has  been  warm  even  that  short  period  may  have  been  short- 
ened. 


PLATE  14.— Angoumois  Grain  Moth. 


The  best  way  to  cure  or  get  rid  of  these  moths  is  to  use  Carbon 
Bisulphide.  The  bin  or  the  place  where  the  corn  is  in  storage  should 
be  made  air  tight ;  then  the  Carbon  Bisulphide  may  be  placed  inside. 
The  gases  will  do  the  work.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  matches 
away  from  the  gas.  Grain  that  has  been  fumigated  with  this  gas 
may  be  used  for  food  at  any  time.  It  might  be  added  that  in  the 
treatment  there  is  no  need  for  placing  the  bisulphide  where  it  is 
lower  than  the  grain  for  the  gases  are  heavier  than  the  air  and 
will  reach  the  lowest  recesses  any^vay.  It  may  be  necessary  to  fumi- 
gate several  times  since  moths  will  be  coming  out  from  time  to  time. 


CORN  207 

Weevils. 

Another  enemy  to  the  stored  grain  is  the  class  known  as 
weevils.  There  are  several.  All  of  them  work  in  much  the  same 
way.  The  common  sort  of  beetle  of  this  class  is  about  oue-seventh 
of  an  inch  long,  and  is  of  a  brownish  color.  By  means  of  a  long  beak 
or  snout  this  beetle  punctures  the  kernel  and  lays  an  egg  in  the  hole. 
In  a  short  time  the  eggs  are  hatched  and  the  worm  form  appears.  It 
is  a  white,  legless  form.  The  time  that  is  required  for  the  brood  to 
develop  is  so  short  that  several  may  come  in  a  season.  The  southern 
states  seem  to  be  affected  more  than  the  northern  states. 

There  is  but  one  remedy  and  but  one  preventative  measure  for 
this  iQsect:  Carbon  bisulphide  and  cleanliness.  The  latter  should 
exist  in  all  places  where  corn  is  stored.  After  the  enemies  appear 
then  the  bisulphide  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Cribs  and  bins 
should  be  made  air  tight  before  the  bisulphide  is  used.  This  may  be 
done  by  using  blankets  and  robes. 

Summary  of  Insects. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  insects  studied  come  under  three  classes : 
Those  that  affect  the  plant,  the  stored  grain,  and  the  milled  grain. 

In  all  of  these  classes  cleanliness  of  the  surroundings  has  been 
a  preventative  measure.  The  man  who  keeps  his  meal  bins  clean  is 
less  likely  to  be  bothered  by  the  insects  that  work  in  corn  meal  than 
the  man  who  is  not  careful.  The  stored  ear  corn  will  become  in- 
fested where  the  conditions  are  not  sanitary  and  wholesome.  And 
the  fi^ld  corn  will  be  attacked  where  the  ground  has  not  been  kept 
clean  by  rotation,  drainage,  arid  cultivation.  So  cleanliness  means 
much  towards  having  good  corn  for  the  market. 

All  in  all  there  are  about  three  hundred  insects  that  attack  the 
various  parts  of  the  corn  plant  and  its  products.  That  does  not  mean 
that  that  number  completes  the  list.  There  are  others  but  those  three 
hundred  are  frequently  found.  The  most  dangerous  are  those  that 
attack  the  young  plants  usually  underground.  Any  of  them  will 
cause  loss  enough,  and  so  it  behooves  every  worker  in  this  industrj" 
to  prevent  and  kill  whenever  and  wherever  possible. 


208 


CORN 


PLATE  15.— In  breeding  for  all  of  the  good  qualities  in  corn,  the  field  is  the  place  to  do  the 
studying.  Look  at  the  ear,  the  plant,  the  conditions  under  which  it  has  grown.  Know 
the  seed  that  is  to  be  used. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN. 

What  is  Breeding? 

What  the  subject  of  breeding  includes  has  been  a  matter  of 
question  for  many  years  among  those  men  who  have  been  working 
with  plants  and  there  is  no  4efiuition  that  will  hold  at  this  time. 
Some  man  will  write  a  book  upon  the  subject  and  will  treat  some 
themes  that  are  entirely  foreign  to  those  that  are  treated  by  another 
author. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  breeding  animals  means  more 
than  merely  mating  the  males  and  the  females.  It  means  improve- 
ment at  the  same  time.  And  so  with  the  plants,  and  with  corn 
which  is  one  of  the  chiefest  of  our  plants,  breeding  means  that  the 
crop  is  to  be  improved.  And  if  the  crop  is  to  be  improved  in  yield 
and  quality  its  progeny  must  be  guarded.    And  so  we  may  say  that 


CORN  209 

breeding  of  corn  is  the  control  of  the  progeny  with  the  idea  in  mind 
of  definite  improvement  in  yield  or  quality  or  both. 

The  accomplishment  of  even  the  definition  is  not  an  easy  task. 
For  corn  has  peculiarities  that  set  it  out  from  all  of  the  other  farm 
crops. 

The  Nature  of  the  Plant. 

Plants  may  be  fertilized  by  self,  close  or  cross  fertilization.  Self 
fertilization  is  that  condition  where  the  pollen  from  one  flower  falls 
on  the  female  or  pistillate  parts  of  the  same  flower.  The  breeding 
takes  place  within  the  flower  itself,  there  being  no  outside  influence. 
Close  fertilization  is  that  where  the  pollen  from  a  nearby  relative  is 
used.  It  is  the  mating  of  relatives.  Cross  fertilization  is  that  exist- 
ing where  the  pollen  from  one  plant  falls  on  the  female  parts  of  a 
plant  entirely  distinct  and  separate  from  it. 

Grasses  are  naturally  cross  fertilized.  So  we  would  expect  corn 
to  fall  in  that  class.  And  it  does.  But  the  question  is  arising  in  the 
mind  of  someone  as  to  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  These  are  all  self 
fertilized  to  a  large  extent.  And  they  are  exceptions  to  the  rule,  al- 
though it  is  customary  to  think  of  the  matter  in  just  the  reverse 
way.    Corn  fits  the  regular  rule. 

Now  it  means  a  great  deal  to  remember,  when  breeding  opera- 
tions are  being  started,  that  corn  is  cross  bred.  And  being  cross 
bred  there  are  some  things  that  must  be  guarded.  A  single  head  or 
ear  of  wheat  may  be  planted  in  a  field.  Each  of  its  kernels  produce 
heads  like  the  one  from  which  it  came.  But  v/ith  corn  the  matter  is 
different.  An  ear  of  corn  placed  in  the  field  with  other  ears  will  re- 
ceive pollen  from  many  sources  and  so  will  reproduce  in  no  stable 
type.  That  means  that  if  the  corn  is  to  be  accurately  reproduced  to 
a  certain  type  it  must  be  restricted  and  guarded;  methods  must  be 
devised  to  overcome  the  effort  of  nature  to  cross  fertilize.  For  corn 
is  distinctly  a  cross  fertilized  plant. 

Methods  of  Breeding. 

In  this  study  we  will  start  at  the  simplest  known  form  of  breed- 
ing and  work  to  that  which  is  the  most  complicated.  Be  sure  that 
every  point  is  understood  before  you  advance  to  the  next. 


210  CORN 

Field  Breeding 

The  ordinary  field  presents  a  type  of  breeding  that  is  the  most 
common.  Someone  may  say  that  there  is  no  breeding  going  on  in 
the  sense  that  there  is  no  improvement,  and  perhaps  that  is  right. 
But  because  of  the  fact  that  so  many  farmers  depend  wholly  on  this 
method  for  results,  we  will  call  it  field  breeding.  There  are  a  great 
many  plants.  Most  of  them  are  producing  ears.  Most  of  them  are 
producing  tassels  from  which  will  fall  pollen  that  will  fertilize  some 
of  the  neighboring  plants.  * 

Now  the  most  that  most  farmers  do,  who  will  not  believe  in  the 
later  and  better  methods,  is  to  select  from  this  field,  that  has  been 
so  indiscriminately  mated,  the  corn  that  they  desire  for  their  fields 
the  coming  season.  Sometimes  that  selection  is  made  at  the  crib.  If 
it  is,  there  is  little  chance  for  improvement.  Sometimes  the  seed 
ears  are  selected  at  the  time  of  harvest  from  the  stalks.  That  is 
better.  Sometimes  the  corn  is  selected  before  the  killing  frosts 
come.  That  is  still  better,  and  all  will  aid  in  the  field  breeding  that 
is  going  on  whether  the  farmer  realizes  it  or  not.  The  last  method, 
that  of  selecting  the  seed  ears  from  the  stalks  as  they  are  standing 
in  the  field  and  before  the  frosts  come,  will  add  several  desirable 
features  to  the  oncoming  generations.  Early  maturity  will  be  en- 
couraged and  this  is  especially  important  in  the  Northern  States. 
But  why  will  early  maturity  be  encouraged  if  the  ears  are  selected 
early  in  the  fall  season.    Let  us  see. 

Some  Principles. 

In  the  language  of  the  animal  breeder  there  is  no  term  used 
more  frequently  than  that  "like  will  procluce  like."  What  is  meant 
by  that?  In  general  it  refers  to  heredity.  It  is  known  that  when 
living  matter  is  being  reproduced  there  is  something  in  the  life  of 
the  matter  that  will  stamp  on  the  generation  that  is  to  come  the 
likeness  of  itself.  Children  become  like  the  parents  because  of  the 
laws  of  heredity,  and  the  fact  that  like  produced  like  is  one  of  the 
laws  that  becomes  a  part  of  the  greater  law. 

Then,  besides  this,  we  speak  of  improvement  by  selection.  It 
is  usually  conceded  that  no  plant  or  animal  life  would  be  improved 
at  all  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that  selection   takes   place.     This 


CORN  211 

may  be  natural  as  in  the  forest  where  the  weak  and  smaller  trees 
are  crowded  out  for  the  larger  forms,  and  so  become  extinct,  or  it 
may  occur  at  the  hand  of  man  as  when  the  corn  plant  is  improved 
by  the  selection  of  the  best  ears  or  the  best  stalks.  All,  except 
those  that  are  selected,  are  of  no  use  Avhatever  in  producing  "quali- 
ties in  the  on-coming  generations.  Their  blood  lines  are  thrown 
away. 

"So,  when  the  early  corn  is  selected  for  seed  the  generations  fol- 
lowing tend  to  ripen  as  early  as  the  parent  plants.  And  so  it  is  when 
any  point  is  selected  that  point  tends  to  reproduce  itself  in  the  off- 
spring. And  it  has  been  found  in  the  case  of  corn  that  physical 
characteristics  are  definitely  controllable  by  selection  in  the  proper 
way. 

Now  another  thing  that  enters  into  the  work.  Individuality 
means  everything.  That  is,  selection  depends  on  individuals,  and 
improvement  depends  on  selection.  The  individual  for  selection  in 
the  case  of  corn  is  the  plant.  Kernels  cannot  be  chosen  and  from 
them  great  results  secured  for  the  reason  that  the  kernel  is  but  a 
part  of  the  ear,  and  the  ear  only  represents  a  part  of  the  plant.  Now 
I  know  what  you  are  thinking.  You  are  thinking  of  the  uselessness 
of  selecting  the  ear  when  it  is  the  plant  that  has  the  unit  character- 
istics back  of  its  growth.  And  in  a  way  you  are  right.  You  are 
exactly  correct  when  we  think  of  the  crib  method  of  selection,  for 
that  accomplishes  very  little  real  improvement  at  all.  The  best 
looking  ear  may  have  come  from  a  stalk  that  was  poor  and,  under 
most  conditions,  would  have  produced  ears  of  no  worth  at  all.  But 
if  the  best  looking  ear  is  selected  from  the  best  looking  stalk  then 
success  is  assured.    This  may  be  said  without  qualifications. 

In  the  study  of  the  ear  and  the  plant  the  various  parts  of  the 
organism  were  considered  as  they  would  help  to  build  up  a  high 
yielding  corn.  If  those  points  are  remembered  in  the  selection  of 
the  corn  from  the  field,  improvement  will  follow  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time. 

Ear  and  plant  are  inseparable,  then,  but  the  ear  is  not  the  unit, 
The  plant  is.-  And  in  the  field  where  the  field  breeding  is  going  on 
there  are  all  sorts  of  intermingling  of  bloods.  That  is  good  from  the 
standpoint  that  corn  is  distinctly  a  cross-fertilized  plant  and  unless 
it  secures  its  pollen  from  some  not  near  related  plant  it  will  be  a 


212  CORN 

failure.  But  in  the  sense  that  unprofitable  blood  lines  are  being 
added  it  is  not  desirable.  That  is  partly  overcome  by  the  next  sys- 
tem. 

The  Breeding  Block. 

The  Breeding  Block  has  been  in  use  for  a  great  many  years  in 
one  form  or  another.  And  as  a  result  of  its  influences  it  has  accom- 
plished much  good.  It  does  nothing  more  or  less  than  separate  from 
the  general  run  of  corn  that  is  used  for  the  main  field  the  corn  that 
has  been  specially  selected  from  the  field  the  year  before.  What 
will  that  accomplish?  The  corn  that  has  been  selected  will,  by  the 
laws  of  heredity,  transmit  to  the  offspring  its  characteristics.  It 
has  better  characters  than  the  other  corn  for  it  is  known  to  have 
come  from  good  stalks  in  the  field  and  to  possess  good  ear  charac- 
ters. If  this  sort  of  corn  is  put  in  a  place  apart  from  the  rest  the 
characteristics  will  be  accumulated  and  better  corn  will  follow.  Such 
corn  ought  to  possess  the  best  characteristics  of  all  of  the  selected 
ears.  The  cross  breeding  will  not  be  neglected  for  a  great  many 
ears  have  been  planted  in  this  Breeding  Block,  and  they  will  inter- 
change their  pollen  to  such  an  extent  that  the  vigor  of  the  plants 
will  not  be  reduced. 

With  the  ordinary  field  under  ordinary  conditions  this  Breed- 
ing Block  may  be  put  at  the  edge.  That  is,  the  best  ears  will  be 
planted  apart  in  some  corner.  Many  of  the  corn  belt  farmers  use 
the  southwest  corner  for  the  reason  that  the  prevailing  winds  are 
from  that  direction  and  will  blow  the  good  pollen  from  the  good 
part  of  the  field  to  the  general  field  rather  than  the  reverse.  The 
Breeding  Block  may  be  of  any  size  that  is  convenient.  But  it  should 
be  protected  from  foreign  corn,  for  while  some  benefits  result  from 
the  mixing  of  varieties  there  is  no  permanent  improvement.  It  may 
be  necessary,  therefore,  to  take  your  good  corn  to  the  center  of  your 
general  field.  The  corn  there  will  at  least  be  of  the  same  variety, 
and  if  there  is  a  fair-sized  block  of  the  good  corn  there  will  not  be 
enough  of  the  poor  corn  mixture  to  interfere  with  the  inner  parts  of 
the  block.  This  method  is  followed  by  many  successful  farmers. 
They  take  the  very  center  of  the  field  and  see  that  their  best  corn 
gets  planted  there.  After  that  there  is  no  special  care  required 
since  that  corn  may  be  cultivated  along  with  the  other  corn.   How- 


CORN  213 

ever,  many  are  following  the  practice  of  hoeing  the  special  parts  of 
the  field,  but  that  is  not  necessary  as  far  as  the  character  of  the  ears 
is  concerned,  unless  the  field  is  exceptionally  weedy. 

The  points  that  are  essential  to  remember  to  this  method  are 
that  it  segregates  the  best  ears  in  one  place  so  that  the  best  blood 
will  be  collected  in  the  resulting  generation,  that  no  special  care 
is  needed  except  at  the  time  of  planting,  that  seed  selected  from  a 
block  of  this  kind  is  stronger  and  better  able  to  perform  well  when 
planted  than  corn  selected  from  the  general  field,  and  that  this 
method  is  practicable  for  all  farmers  who  raise  corn. 

Plot  Breeding. 

The  term  breeding  is  often  falsely  applied  to  the  work  of  the  ex- 
periment stations  and  those  who  are  selling  seed  corn  on  an  enor- 
mous scale.  And  when  that  is  considered  there  is  always  in  mind 
what  we  have  chosen  to  call  the  plot  method  of  breeding.  It  sug- 
gests more  detail.  However,  the  farmer,  who  is  wide  awake,  can 
use  some  of  its  methods. 

Ear-to-row  Test.     . 

Scarcely  a  person  today  but  what  has  heard  of  the  ear-to-row 
test.  And  that  is  probably  for  the  reason  that  the  test  has  been  so 
successful.  It  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  plant  is  the  unit,  that 
there  is  usually  but  one  ear  to  the  plant  and  so  that  would  represent 
the  plant,  and  that  if  the  ability  of  that  ear  and  plant  to  yield  corn 
is  for  once  shown  the  advisability  of  using  it  for  seed  will  be  known. 
After  a  great  deal  of  study  and  work  it  was  discovered  that  the 
crossing  of  corn  the  first  year  did  not  affect  the  yield  that  year.  It 
was  known  that  if  corn  were  planted  anywhere  near  to  other  corn 
there  would  be  a  mixture.  Then  it  was  soon  found  out  that  it  was 
impossible  to  get  the  strains  far  enough  separated  to  prevent  mix- 
ture. "But,"  said  the  workers,  "is  there  any  need  in  this  prelimi- 
nary test  to  get  the  corn  separated  ?  If  the  ears  are  planted  in  rows 
side  by  side  and  harvested  separately  the  yielding  ability  of  each 
will  be  known.  And  if  a  half  of  each  ear  has  been  saved  the  halves 
of  the  high  yielding  ones  may  be  used  for  seed  to  produce  higher 
yielders. ' ' 


214  CORN 

And  that  was  exactly  what  was  done  and  it  worked.  One-half 
of  each  ear  was  shelled.  That  half  was  planted  in  an  individual 
row.  Beside  it  was  a  row  planted  from  another  specially  selected 
ear.  Beside  this  row  another,  and  so  on,  down  until  all  of  the  ears, 
were  under  test.  At  the  close  of  the  season  the  rows  were  harvested 
each  by  itself  and  the  weights  taken.  The  yield  per  acre  was  calcu- 
lated. This  told  easily  which  ears  were  needed  in  the  Breeding 
Block. 

This  method  is  but  a  modification  or  an  adaptation  of  the  tests 
put  to  live  stock.  Take  one  example,  that  of  the  dairy  cow.  In  the 
modern  dairy,  what  cow  holds  her  place  if  she  cannot  produce  milk 
and  butter  profitably?  And  in  the  corn  field  the  question  should 
be  asked,  "What  ear  and  stalk  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  this  field?" 

How  this  ear-to-row  scheme  may  be  applied  to  the  farm  should 
be  worked  out  by  each  man  for  his  own  conditions.  The  experiment 
stations  have  a  scheme  for  length  of  row  which  will  give  them  the 
yield  of  the  corn  .per  acre  directly.  That  is,  there  is  no  need  of  any 
figuring  after  the  row  is  weighed  up,  for  the  figures  on  weight  tell 
all  of  the  story. 

The  Breeding  Plot, 

After  these  ears  are  known,  as  a  result  of  the  ear-to-row  test, 
they  are  placed  in  a  breeding  block.  The  purpose  of  placing  them 
in  this  block  is  to  get  seed  of  sufficient  quantity  for  distribution. 
The  idea  is  that  if  all  of  these  good  bloods  are  mixed  a  corn  will  be 
produced  that  will  be  extremely  desirable  for  planting.  And  the 
idea  works  out  in  practice.  Do  not  think  that  the  amount  of  corn 
will  be  great  the  first  year  from  the  ear  to  row  tests.  The  average 
that  is  saved  from  these  tests  where  they  are  run  every  year  is  only 
ten  per  cent,  of  all  the  corn  tested.  It  is  this  ten  per  cent,  that  is 
planted  in  the  breeding  plot. 

The  strongest  ears  are  planted  in  the  even  numbered  rows,  and 
the  next  strongest  ears  in  the  alternate  rows.  This  gives  the  great- 
est possible  mixture  of  pollen.  Then  it  is  often  desirable  to  detassel 
the  stalks  that  are  in  the  even  rows  in  order  to  make  sure  that  they 
are  the  female  ears.  The  female  ears  always  give  the  offspring  the 
greatest  impression  of  their  qualities  and  since  they  are  the  best 


CORN  215 

ears  the  best  characteristics  are  transmitted. '  The  male  ears,  al- 
though they  are  fairly  strong,  give  the  least  impression  of  their 
value  to  the  offspring. 

The  Multiplying  Plot. 

After  the  breeding  plot  has  produced  crosses  from  the  ears  that 
had  been  tested  in  the  ear-to-row  test,  the  best  selected  ears  are 
placed  in  the  multiplying  plot.  That  is,  even  at  this  point  there  is 
not  enough  seed  for  general  distribution.  Seed  from  the  breeding 
plot  must  be  increased  in  quantity.  That  is  done  in  a  field  as  nearly 
isolated  from  otlier  fields  as  possible.  The  seed  is  planted  in  the 
ordinary  way  and  grown  just  as  any  corn  would  be  grown,  except 
for  the  isolation. 

It  was  mentioned  that  the  ear-to-row  tests  did  not  need  to  be 
separated  from  the  other  corn,  but  the  breeding  rows  should  be. 
For  from  the  time  the  seed  has  proven  its  worth  it  must  be  kept 
pure  and  to  keep  it  pure  every  precaution  must  be  used.  So  the 
breeding  plot  and  the  multiplying  plot  must  be  isolated  in  some  way 
or  another.  Sometimes  a  woods  or  a  hedge  will  accomplish  the 
work,  but  it  is  best  to  have  the  corn  far  away  from  all  other  corn 
if  possible,  whether  there  happens  to  be  a  wind  break  near  or  not. 

Strange  Ideas. 

An  idea  prevails  in  some  sections  as  to  the  value  of  mixing  corn. 
That  is,  the  mixing  of  varieties.  Men  have  presented  their  corn  to 
the  judge  with  much  disgust  because  it  was  not  given  first  prize, 
and  they  were  much  more  disgusted  when  they  heard  his  reply  that 
the  ears  showed  a  mixture  of  other  kinds  of  corn.  Their  idea  was 
that  the  more  mixing  the  better.  This  point  has  already  been  men- 
tioned, but  let  me  repeat  it  here.  It  is  not  desirable  to  mix  varieties 
of  corn  any  more  than  it  is  best  to  cross  breeds  of  live  stock  indis- 
criminately. With  corn  there  seems  to  be  a  sudden  increased  yield- 
ing power  the  first  year  after  the  cross,  but  from  that  time  there  are 
no  high  yields  at  all.    In  fact,  the  reverse  is  true. 

Then  there  has  been  so  much  said  about  the  need  for  detassel- 
ing  corn  in  the  field.  Ideas  have  gone  the  round  that  that  would 
increase  the  yielding  power  of  the  stalks  detasseled.    Experiments 


216 


CORN 


CORN  217 

have  shown  that  if  the  stalks  are  not  injured  in  the  process  of  de- 
tasseling  the  yield  will  be  as  high  or  higher  than  it  would  have  been 
if  there  had  been  no  detasseling.  But  it  is  very  difficult  to  detassel 
and  not  injure  the  plant  at  all,  so  the  yield  is  usually  lower  on  the 
detasseled  corn  than  on  the  other.  The  only  value  of  detasseling  is 
that  it  makes  out  of  the  plants  that  are  detasseled  females,  while 
those  that  are  not  touched  are  both  male  and  female.  The  ear  on 
the  female  stalk  has  a  known  parentage  on  the  mother's  side..  No 
other  ears  have  a  definitely  known  parentage. 

The  detasseling  method  is  used^  where  the  breeding  plot  de- 
sires to  get  certain  crosses.  That  is  its  only  place  of  use.  If  it, 
were  attempted  in  a  general  field  of  corn  the  work  connected  with 
detasseling  would  cost  more  than  any  possible  returns  from  any  in- 
creased vigor  of  the  plants. 

The  method  of  detasseling  is  simple.  Just  at  the  time  that  the 
tassels  are  appearing  walk  through  the  rows.  Wherever  there  is 
a  tassel  long  enough  to  be  caught  by  the  tip,  take  hold  o*f  it  and  by 
a  quick  pull  upwards  remove  the  entire  tassel.  At  this  stage  the 
parts  of  the  corn  plant  are  easily  broken  and  so  the  tassel  comes 
out  with  the  least  damage  to  the  rest  of  the  plant.  Do  not  use  a 
knife.  This  will  injure  the  plant  more  than  any  other  method.  It 
is  often  advised  to  detassel  the  barren  stalks.  That  advice  would 
be  all  right  if  the  barren  stalks  could  be  told  at  the  time  when  the 
detasseling  should  be  done.  But  the  fact  that  the  ears  may  appear 
later  on  the  stalk  makes  such  advice  worthless. 


An  Example  of  Experiment  Station  Breeding-. 

The  experiment  stations  all  over  the  country  have  done  more 
or  less  work  with  corn,  but  it  is  all  somewhat  alike  in  methods  fol- 
lowed. The  state  of  Illinois  has  worked  out  a  system  that  has  more 
details  and  which  combines  the  best  principles  that  are  used  else- 
where. They  have  found  that  the  protein  content,  and  the  fat  con- 
tent can  be  more  or  less  controlled  by  breeding,  and  their  efforts  to 
work  out  a  system  for  this  and  at  the  same  time  for  preventing  in- 
breeding has  much  of  interest.  They  outline  the  work  in  Bulletin 
100  from  their  station. 


218  CORN 

Size  of  the  Breeding  Plot. 

From  our  present  knowledge  we  believe  that  96  ears  is  a  safe 
number  to  use,  so  far  as  in-breeding  is  concerned,  and  this  is  the 
number  that  we  suggest  in  these  directions,  it  being  understood 
that  alternate  rows  are  to  be  detasseled  and  all  seed  corn  selected 
from  detasseled  rows. 


Plant  by  the  Row  System. 

The  96  selected  ears  are  planted  in  96  separate  rows.  These 
rows  should  be  at  least  100  hills  long,  but  they  may  well  be  forty 
rods  long,  as  the  amount  of  seed  will  usually  permit  this. 

It  is  recommended  that  these  96  seed  ears  be  numbered  from  1 
to  48  and  from  51  to  98,  the  numbers  49  and  50  being  omitted ;  also 
that  ears' 1  to  48  be  planted  on  one-half  of  the  plot  and  ears  51  to 
98  be  planted  on  the  other  half,  preferably  end  to  end  with  the  first 
half,  leaving  one  hill  unplanted  to  mark  the  line  between  the  two 
halves,  also  leaving  one  row  unplanted  to  mark  to  line  between  rows 
24  and  25  and  between  rows  74  and  75 ;  that  is,  between  quarters. 

In  this  way  row  51  (planted  from  ear  51)  is  a  continuation  of 
row  1  (planted  from  seed  from  ear  1)  and  the  two  rows  may  well  ex- 
tend 80  rods  across  a  forty  acre  field.  The  breeding  plot  can  be 
planted  with  a  corn  planter,  although  it  will  require  some  time  and 
patience,  and  if  the  planter  is  an  edge  drop  it  will  be  necessary  to 
put  a  suitable  cone  or  inverted  funnel  in  each  box  so  as  to  keep  the 
small  amount  of  corn  to  the  outside.  Place  the  shelled  corn  from 
ear  number  1  in  one  box  and  from  ear  No.  2  in  the  other;  drive  to 
the  middle  line  of  the  plot,  thus  planting  rows  1  and  2;  clean  out 
the  boxes ;  move  forward  one  hill ;  put  in  corn  from  hills  51  and  52 ; 
use  the  foot  trip  until  the  corn  begins  to  drop,  then  drive  on  and 
plant  ears  53  and  54 ;  plant  back  to  the  middle ;  clean  out,  put  in  ears 
3  and  4,  then  plant  on  back  to  the  beginning  line,  thus  continuing 
until  the  breeding  plot  is  all  planted.  The  planting  may  be  con- 
tinued for  the  commercial  field  using  the  same  variety  of  corn, 
which  could  be  of  similar  breeding,  finishing,  perhaps,  with  the  mul- 
tiplying plot  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  field  from  the  breeding  plot. 


CORN  219 

Eacli  one  of  the  breeding  plot  rows  should  be  numbered  to  cor- 
respond with  the  register  number  of  the  ear  from  which  it  is 
planted. 

The  breeding  plot  should  be  well  protected  from  the  foreign 
pollen,  by  being  planted  as  far  away  from  other  varieties  of  corn  as 
possible. 


Selection  of  Field  Rows  and  Seed  Ears. 

As  the  crop  matures,  the  corn  from  each  detasseled  breeding 
row  is  now  harvested.  First  all  the  ears  on  the  row  which  appear  to 
be  good  seed  ears  and  which  are  borne  on  good  plants,  in  good  po- 
sition, and  with  good  ear  shanks  and  husks,  are  harvested,  placed 
in  a  bag  with  the  number  of  the  row,  finally  weighed,  together  with 
the  remainder  of  the  crop  from  the  same  row.  No  seed  ears  should 
be  taken  within  two  or  three  rods  of  the  inside  ends  of  the  rows.  The 
total  weight  of  ear  corn  which  every  detasseled  row  yields  should  be 
determined  and  recorded,  for  the  yield  is  the  primary  factor  in  de- 
termining the  rows  from  which  all  of  the  seed  ears  for  next  year's 
seed  selection  must  be  taken.  Each  lot  of  ears  from  each  of  the  de- 
tasseled rows,  and  finally  each  single  ear  of  the  96  seed  ears  ulti- 
mately selected  is  kept  labeled  with  the  number  of  the  row  in  which 
it  grew  and  finally  with  its  own  ear  number  also,  and  permanent 
records  are  made  of  the  number  and  the  description  of  the  ear,  the 
performance  records  of  the  row,  etc.,  so  that  as  the  breeding  is  con- 
tinued an  absolute  pedigree  is  established  on  the  female  side,  for 
every  ear  of  corn  which  may  be  produced  from  this  seed  so  long  as 
the  records  are  made  and  preserved.  "We  also  know  absolutely  that 
we  have  good  breeding  on  the  male  side,  although  the  exact  individ- 
ual pedigree  of  the  males  cannot  be  known  and  recorded. 


Planting  for  Cross-Pollination. 

In  order  to  insure  cross  breeding-  to  the  greatest  possible  extent 
the  plan  given  in  table  eight  should  be  adopted. 


220 


CORN 


Table  8. — Plan  for  Planting  the  Breeding  Plot  to  Avoid  Inbreeding. 

The  numbers  given  in  the  guides  designate  the  "field  rows  from  which  the 
seed  ears  are  taken.     (All  even  numbered  rows  are  detasseled.) 


Field 
Row 

No. 

Guide 

System 

for  Even 

Years 

Guide 

System 

for  Odd 

Years 

Model 
Example 

for  an 
EvenYear 

Field 
Row 
No. 

Guide 

System 

for  Even 

Years 

Guide 
System 
for  Odd 

Years 

Model 
Example 

for  an 
EvenYear 

1 

76 

78 

76 

51 

2 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

4 

52 

52 

52 

52 

3 

80 

82 

84 

53 

6 

8 

10 

4 

6 

6 

10 

54 

56 

56 

58 

5 

84 

86 

90 

55 

10 

12 

16 

6 

10 

10 

16 

56 

60 

60 

66 

7 

78 

76 

80 

57 

4 

2 

8 

S 

4 

4 

8 

58 

54 

54 

56 

9 

82 

80 

86 

59 

8 

6 

14 

10 

8 

8 

14 

60 

58 

58 

60 

11 

86 

84 

92 

61 

12 

10 

20 

12 

12 

12 

20 

62 

62 

62 

68 

13 

78 

76 

80 

63 

4 

2 

8 

14 

2 

2 

4 

64 

52 

52 

52 

15 

82 

80 

86 

65 

88 

6 

14 

16 

6 

6 

10 

66 

56 

56 

58 

17 

86 

84 

92 

67 

12 

10 

20 

18 

10 

10 

16 

68 

60 

60 

66 

19 

76 

78 

7« 

69 

2 

4 

4 

20 

4 

4 

8 

70 

54 

54 

56 

21 

80 

82 

84 

71 

6 

8 

10 

22 

8 

8 

14 

72 

58 

58 

60 

28 

84 

86 

90 

73 

10 

12 

16 

24 

12 

12 

20 

74 

62 

62 

68 

25 

52 

54 

52 

26 

26 

26 

30 

27 

56 

58 

56 

28 

30 

30 

36 

29 

60 

62 

66 

30 

34 

34 

42 

31 

54 

52 

56 

32 

28 

28 

34 

33 

58 

56 

60 

34 

32 

32 

38 

35 

62 

60 

68 

36 

36 

36 

46 

37 

54 

52 

56 

38 

26 

26 

30 

39 

58 

56 

60 

40 

30 

30 

36 

41 

62 

60 

68 

42 

34 

34 

42 

43 

52 

54 

52 

44 

28 

28 

34 

45 

56 

58 

58 

46 

32 

.  32 

38 

47 

60 

62 

66 

48 

36 

36 

46 

75 

26 

28   , 

30 

76 

76 

76 

76 

77 

30 

32 

36 

78 

80 

86 

84 

79 

34 

36 

42 

80 

84- 

84 

90 

81 

28 

26 

34 

82 

78 

78 

80 

83 

32 

30 

38 

84 

82 

82 

86 

85 

36 

34 

46 

86 

86 

86 

92 

87 

28 

26 

34 

88 

76 

76 

76 

89 

32 

30 

S8 

90 

80 

80 

84 

91 

36 

34 

46 

92 

84 

84 

90 

93 

26 

28 

30 

94 

78 

78 

80 

95 

30 

32 

36 

96 

82 

82 

86 

97 

34 

36 

42 

98 

86 

86 

92 

CORN  221 

In  this  plan  the  breeding  plot  is  considered  by  quarters.  Each 
quarter  contains  24  rows  and  each  row  is  planted  with  corn  from  a 
separate  seed  ear.  All  even  numbered  rows  are  detasseled  and  seed 
for  the  next  year 's  breeding  plot  is  taken  from  the  six  best  yielding 
detasseled  rows  in  each  quarter,  four  ears  being  taken  from  each  se- 
lected row,  making  96  ears  in  all. 

For  convenience  we  use  the  term  ''sire  seed",  or  "sire  ears",  to 
designate  the  ears  which  are  to  be  planted  in  odd-numbered  rows  to 
produce  tassels  (the  male  flowers)  and  to  furnish  pollen;  and  we  use 
the  term  "dam  seed"  or  "dam  ears"  to  designate  the  ears  to  be 
planted  in  the  even  rows  to  produce  future  seed  ears.  Of  the  four 
seed  ears  taken  from  each  selected  field  row,  two  are  used  for  sire 
seed  and  two  for  dam  seed. 

In  the  column  headed  "Guide  system  for  even  years"  is  given 
a  key  or  guide,  by  which  to  work  out  the  actual  plan  for  planting  in 
all  even  numbered  years,  under  the  heading  "Model  example  for  an 
even  year"  is  given  an  actual  plan  which  has  been  worked  out, 
using  four  seed  ears  from  six  selected  rows  from  each  quarter  of  the 
breeding  plot. 

In  the  guide  system,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  we  use  four  seed 
ears  from  each  of  the  first  six  even-numbered  rows  in  each  quarter, 
a  selection  which  would  i)robably  never  occur  in  actual  practice. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  dam  seed  ears  for  each  quarter  are 
ears  which  grew  in  the  same  quarter.  For  the  first  quarter  (rows  1 
to  24)  sire  ears  are  brought  from  the  fourth  quarter.  For  the  second 
quarter,  sire  seed  is  brought  from  the  third.  In  each  of  the?e  cases 
sire  seed  is  carried  diagonally  across  the  breeding  plot.  For  the 
third  quarter  sire  seed  is  brought  from  the  first  quarter,  and  the 
fourth  from  the  second,  the  sire  seed  being  carried  lengthwise  of  the 
breeding  plot  in  these  cases. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  there  is  a  definite  order  of  plant- 
ing for  "even  years"  and  another  definite  order  for  "odd  years." 
Thus,  in  the  first  quarter,  the  even-numbered  rows  are  planted  in 
ascending  order  with  dam  seed  selected  from  rows  numbered :  2,  6, 
10,  4,  8,  12,  2,  6,  10,  4,  8,  12. 

The  alternating  even  numbers  are  repeated  in  sets  of  three  and 
six.  The  odd  numbered  rows  are  planted  with  the  sire  seed  selected 
from  rows  numbered :  76,  80,  84,  78,  82,  86,  78,  82,  86,  76,  80,  84. 


222  CORN 

This  is  the  same  order  as  for  the  dams  except  that  the  two  sets 
of  three  are  reversed  in  the  second  set  of  six.  The  only  change  re- 
quired for  odd  numbered  years  is  to  transpose  the  two  sets  of  six 
in  planting  the  sire  seed.  Exactly  the  same  system  is  used  in  each 
quarter  of  the  breeding  plot. 


Arranging  Seed  Ears  for  Planting. 

By  referring  to  the  ''Model  example  for  an  even  year"  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  becomes  an  easy  matter  to  follow  the  "Guide  Sys- 
tem" in  arranging  seed  ears  for  planting.  Suppose,  for  example, 
that  in  1905  the  best  six  rows  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  breeding 
plot  are  4,  8,  10,  14,  16,  20.  Then,  for  the  dam  seed  for  planting 
the  first  quarter  in  1906  these  numbers  in  ascending  order,  are  to 
be  substituted  for  the  numbers  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  which  are  given  in 
the  "Guide  System." 

Thus :  For  2,  substitute  4 ;  for  4,  substitute  8 ;  for  6,  substitute 
10;  for  8,  substitute  14;  for  10,  substitute  16;  for  12,  substitute  20. 

Arranging  these  for  planting  the  field  rows,  we  have: 


Row 

Guide 

Actual 

No. 

System. 

Plan 

2 

2 

4 

4 

6 

10 

6 

10 

16 

8 

4 

8 

10 

8 

14 

12 

12 

20 

14 

2 

4 

16 

6 

10 

18 

10 

16 

20 

4 

8 

22 

8 

14 

24 

12 

20 

If  the  best  six  rows  in  the  fourth  quarter  of  the  1905  breeding 
plot  are  76,  80,  84,  86,  90,  92,  then  for  the  sire  seed  for  planting  the 
first  quarter  in  1906  these  numbers  are  to  be  substituted  in  the 
regular  order  for  the  numbers  76,  78,  80,  82,  84,  86,  which  are  given 
in  the  "Guide  System".     Arranging  these  by  threes  as  indicated 


CORN  223 

in  the  "Guide  System",  we  have  the  order  for  planting  the  odd 
numbered  rows  in  the  first  quarter :  76,  84,  90,  80,  86,  92,  80,  86,  92, 
76,  84,  90. 

Thus  we  have  both  the  dam  and  the  sire  seed  ears  for  the  first 
quarter  arranged  exactly  as  shown  under  the  heading  "Model  ex- 
ample" in  Table  8.  The  seed  ears  are  arranged  for  each  quarter 
of  the  breeding  plot  in  a  similar  manner  by  following  the  "Guide 
System"  and  substituting  in  regular  ascending  order  the  actual 
numbers  of  the  best  yielding  rows  for  the  numbers  given  in  the 
"Guide  System"  in  Table  8. 

It  will  be  seen  that  with  this  selection  of  best  rows,  as  given 
in  this  "Model  example,"  we  would  take  the  four  best  ears  from 
row  No.  4  (1905)  and  plant  two  as  dam  ears  in  rows  2  and  14  and 
the  other  two  as  sire  ears  in  rows  51  and  69  (1906) ;  we  would  take 
the  four  best  seed  ears  from  row  No.  84  (1905)  and  plant  two  as 
dam  ears  in  rows  78  and  90  and  the  other  two  as  sire  ears  in  rows 
3  and  21  (1906). 

In  arranging  seed  ears  selected  from  the  1906  breeding  plot  for 
planting  the  1907  breeding  plot,  we  are  to  follow  the  "Guide  sys- 
tem" for  odd  numbered  years,  again  returning  to  the  system  for 
even-numbered  years  for  1908. 

Multiplying  Plot. 

Seed  for  a  multiplying  plot  of  ten  acres  or  more  should  be 
taken  only  from  the  selected  rows  of  the  breeding  plot,  and  may  in- 
clude all  good  seed  corn  which  is  not  required  for  the  breeding  plot. 
This  seed  should  be  well  mixed  together  and  planted  on  the  multi- 
plying plot.  The  corn  grown  in  the  multiplying  plot  should  be 
carefully  protected  from  foreign  pollen  and  all  inferior  stalks 
should  be  detasseled.  The  exact  yield  of  the  multiplying  plot 
should  be  determined  and  registered. 

Commercial  Field. 

The  seed  for  the  commercial  field  should  be  only  the  best  obtain- 
able seed  corn  from  the  multiplying  plot.  The  exact  yield  of  the 
commercial  field  should  be  determined  and  registered.     From  the 


224  CORN 

commercial  field  the  finest  ears  may  be  selected  and    sold    to  the 
trade  as  pedigreed  seed  corn. 

In  Other  States. 

This  has  been  a  quotation  from  the  state  of  Illinois.  Other 
states  have  done  work  similar  in  many  respects.  Illinois  probably 
entered  the  field  with  systematic  work,  but  the  results  that  have' 
been  obtained  there  are  no  greater  than  have  been  obtained  in  the 
states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  etc.  We  say  "no 
greater"  and  yet  there  has  been  in  no  other  state  a  piece  of  experi- 
mental work  to  compare  with  the  high  and  the  low  protein  breed- 
ing that  Illinois  developed.  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  is  responsible 
for  this  great  work.  In  commenting  on  what  has  taken  place  at 
the  Illinois  station  and  what  may  be  done  by  the  farmer  on  the 
farm,  he  says: 

To  the  practical  corn  breeder  I  would  urge  only  three 
things : 

1.  Adopt  the  row  system;  plant  20  to  40  good  seed  ears, 
one  to  a  row ;  then  select  your  seed  for  next  year,  on  the  basis 
of  personal  record,  from  about  ten  rows  which  produce  the 
highest  yield  and  the  best  ears. 

2.  Breed  corn  for  a  purpose.  If  you  wish  to  feed  corn, 
breed  and  grow  high  protein  corn.  If  you  wish  to  grow  corn 
for  the  starch  and  glucose  factories,  breed  and  grow  the  corn 
the  factories  want. 

3.  Until  we  have  more  facts,  do  not  devote  too  much  time 
to  the  "fancy  points,"  such  as  trying  to  grow  kernels  at  the 
tip  end  of  the  cob,  or  trying  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  cob,  or 
trying  to  make  the  tip  end  of  the  cob  as  large  as  the  butt, 
or  pulling  out  suckers,  or  doing  other  things  the  ultimate  end 
of  which  is  unknown.  It  is  not  yet  known  with  any  degree  of 
certainty  whether  such  things  are  beneficial,  injurious,  or  with- 
out effect  on  the  production  of  the  crop. 

And  do  not  feel  that  you  cannot  breed  corn  even  if  you 
are  unable  to  detassel  barren  stalks.  Last  year  we  had  fields 
with  fifty  per  cent  of  barren  stalks ;  this  year  the  same  fields 
have  about  five-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  barren  stalks,  and 
these  examples  fairly  illustrate  the  tremendous  effect  of  soil 
and  season  and  conditions  of  growth,  as  compared  with  breed- 
ing, upon  the  production  of  barren  stalks.    Barren  stalks  bear 


CORN  225 

no  seed  ears,  and  the  whole  tendency  of  nature's  law  is  to 
breed  them  out,  and  even  without  the  intervention  of  man.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  in  order  to  give  barren  stalks  an  equal  chance 
with  the  ear  bearing  plants  to  propagate  themselves,  we  should 
be  obliged  to  detassel  every  ear-bearing  plant  in  the  field.  In 
studying  this  problem  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  fe- 
male parent  of  the  barren  stalk  was  not  barren. 

•  It  is  probably  more  important  that  we  absolutely  prevent 
self-pollination  and  clos'e  pollination  by  detasseling  alternate 
rows,  but  even  this  practice  is  still  an  experiment. 

Since  Dr.  Hopkins  spoke  these  words  Illinois  has  given  their 
sanction  to  the  practice  of  detasseling  to  secure  cross  pollination, 
where  that  work  is  done  by  men  who  know  what  they  are  about. 

By  the  Stations 

The  best  data  that  will  indicate  what  is  being  done  by  the  work- 
ers in  .corn  breeding  is  that  of  the  varieties  produced.  And  yet  that 
indicates  only  in  part  what  has  been  accomplished  and  in  comparing 
the  station  with  the  seed  houses  and  the  individuals  Avho  are  respon- 
sible for  new  market  types  it  must  be  held  in  mind  that  the  stations 
probably  spent  far  more  time  and  care  than  any  of  the  others  in  do- 
ing seemingly  the  same  work. 

The  stations  have  produced  varieties  only  within  the  last  few 
years  for  the  reason  that  the  work  was  little  understood  before  that 
time.  And  then  at  that  time  of  new  soils  and  unexplored  sections  of 
the  country  there  was  little  expression  of  need  on  the  part  of  the 
farmers.  The  experiment  stations  always  try  to  fill  the  immediate 
needs  of  the  farms  of  their  section.  The  Illinois  corn  is  called  Illi- 
nois High  Protein,  or  Illinois  High  Oil  as  the  case  may  be,  and  these 
indicate  the  new  varieties.  Minnesota  has  brought  out  two  varieties. 
The  first,  Minnesota  No.  13  has  a  fame  all  through  the  west  and 
north  where  a  quick  maturing  dent  corn  is  desired.  After  this  was 
produced  the  need  for  a  still  shorter  maturing  corn  was  felt  and  the 
second,  Minnesota  No.  23,  was.  the  result.  Wisconsin  has  taken  the 
old  Silver  King  and  adapted  it  to  the  Wisconsin  conditions  of  cli- 
mate and  soil  and  we  have  what  is  known  as  Wisconsin  No.  7.  Be- 
fore many  years  there  will  not  be  a  state  in  the  union  but  will  have 
a  corn  that  distinctly  represents  the  country  where  grown.  In  fact 
no  one  can  expect  to  grow  a  universal  corn. 


226  CORN 

By  Seed  Houses. 

Much  as  may  be  said  about  the  methods  of  the  seed  houses  the 
fact  that  they  have  produced  new  varieties  speaks  well  for  their 
work.  It  is  a  little  difficult  to  find  what  they  have  done,  for  in  many 
cases  they  are  listed  under  the  name  of  the  man  who  did  the  work. 
Only  three  of  these  firms  will  be  mentioned  here.  There  are  many 
more.  Funk  Brothers  of  Bloomington,  Illinois,  have  been  breeding 
corn  for  a  number  of  years,  and  they  have  various  strains  that  go  on 
the  market  under  their  names.  Henry  Field,  of  Shenandoah,  Iowa, 
has  improved  several  of  the  common  varieties  of  corn  but  still  uses 
the  old  names.  He  advertises  "White  Elephant,  and  Corn  Planter 
along  with  the  standard  varieties.  "W.  A,  Wheeler,  of  the  Dakota 
Improved  Seed  Company,  Mitchell,  S.  D.,  has  one  variety  known  as 
Early  Murdock  which  has  done  well  around  the  parts  of  the  state  of 
South  Dakota  where  it  is  sold. 


By  Individuals 

But  by  far  the  greatest  work  in  bringing  out  new  varieties  of 
corn  has  been  done  on  the  farms  by  men  who  saw  ahead  a  little  far- 
ther than  their  neighbors  did.  Silver  King,  that  white  corn,  which 
does  so  well  in  some  of  the  northern  states  was  originated  by  H.  J. 
Goddard,  of  Fort  Atkinson,  Iowa.  Early  Mastodon  which  is  now 
quite  widely  distributed  was  originated  by  C.  S.  Clark,  of  Huron 
County,  Ohio.  Nimms  Brothers  of  Emerson,  Iowa,  produced  the 
now  famous  Legal  Tender.  Silver  Mine  was  started  by  J.  H.  Beag- 
ley,  of  Sibley,  Illinois,  but  has  since  that  time  been  changed  not  a 
little  by  other  workers.  Leaming,  a  corn  that  has  been  very  popular 
in  the  corn  belt,  took  its  name  from  J.  S.  Leaming,  of  Wilmington, 
Ohio,  who  originated  it.  The  history  of  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  is  known 
to  everyone.  Boone  County  White,  Riley's  Favorite,  Golden  Eagle, 
White  Superior,  Shenandoah  Yellow,  Pride  of  the  North,  Farmers' 
Reliance,  Chase's  White  Dent,  McAuley  White  Dent,  Golden  Row, 
Nebraska  White  Prize,  Iowa  Ideal,  Willhoit,  Cattle  King,  Kansas 
Sunflower,  Hildreth  Yellow '  Dent,  and  a  score  of  other  common 
types  have  received  their  names  and  their  worth  from  the  individ- 
ual corn  breeder  on  the  farm. 


CORN  227 

How  to  Keep  These  Varieties  Pure. 

This  heading  suggests  a  problem,  especially  if  the  farmer  who  is 
attempting  the  job  lives  in  a  thickly  settled  community.  There  is 
one  prominent  breeder  who  thinks  so  much  of  the  purity  of  his  corn 
that  he  will  not  allow  his  neighbors  to  plant  corn  of  any  other  va- 
riety. He  furnishes  them  with  their  seed  corn  every  year  rather 
than  have  them  raising  other  corn,  and  since  he  has  such  fine  corn 
they  are  willing  to  follow  his  advice.  But  it  is  just  about  as  difficult 
to  keep  the  strains  of  corn  pure  as  it  is  to  keep  the  weeds  away  from 
the  farm,  if  your  neighbor  takes  no  interest  in  the  same  work.  The 
only  way  to  overcome  such  difficulties  is  to  organize,  which  is  the 
way  that  the  business  man  has  of  accomplishing  his  purposes. 

There  would  be  several  objects  to  such  an  organization  in  con- 
nection with  the  securing  of  good  seed  corn.  In  the  first  place  the 
corn  might  be  regulated  by  some  central  farm  where  men  who  have 
had  a  great  deal  of  experience  would  be  located,  and  then  at  this 
same  farm  there  might  be  conducted  experiments  that  would  prove 
of  value  to  all.  There  is  no  better  example  in  the  United  States,  at 
the  present  time,  of  what  can  be  done  by  co-operation  than  that 
given  in  the  work  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Association.  This 
association  is  formed  of  students  of  the  Agricultural  college  but  the 
practices  might  well  be  applied  anywhere.  When  the  organization 
was  started  the  objects  were  to  keep  pure  bred  seed  in  the  hands  of 
those  men  who  knew  how  to  handle  really  good  material,  to  help 
all  members  in  touch  with  the  other  members  so  that  seed  might  be 
sold  from  any  member  to  anybody  else  at  any  time.  The  story  is 
briefly  told  by  the  report  of  the  secretary,  R.  A.  Moore : 

Our  Experiment  Association  was  organized  February  22d, 
1901,  and  now  has  a  paid  membership  of  about  1500.  We  prob- 
ably have  a  working  membership  of  1800.  A  person  must  have 
been  a  student  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  in  order  to  be  elig- 
ible to  the  Experiment  Association.  We  do  not  take  in  the  rank 
and  file  of  farmers  as  we  feel  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  young 
men  who  have  received  instruction  along  the  line  of  best  meth- 
ods for  the  growing,  curing,  and  shipping  of  all  seed  grains. 

The  Experiment  Association  receives  state  aid  and  while 
it  co-operates  closely  with  the  College  of  Agriculture,  yet  it  is 
no  integral  part  of  the  College,  only  as  a  co-operative  body.  We 
are  now  receiving  $2,000  annually  from  the  state  and  the  state' 


228  CORN 

also  prints  5,000  of  our  reports  at  a  cost  of  about  $1,800.  We 
have  no  paid  officers  in  our  association  with  the  exception  of 
the  last  two  years  the  members  set  aside  a  small  sum  for  the 
secretary.  The  first  eight  years  of  its  existence,  however,  no 
funds  were  paid  to  any  officers  whatever,  and  the  money  is 
used  wholly  for  purchasing  seed,  grains,  etc.,  for  co-operative 
work. 

We  have  arranged  with  the  Experiment  Station  so  that  all 
pure  bred  pedigreed  seeds  which  are  grown  on  the  Station 
Farm  can  be  purchased  and  controlled  by  the  Experiment  As- 
sociation. These  seed  grains  are  sold  to  the  association  at  the 
regular  market  price  of  common  grains.  In  turn  the  Experi- 
ment Association  agrees  to  establish  seed  grain  centers  and  sell 
at  a  moderate  figure  to  farmers  and  seedsmen  of  the  state  the 
pure  bred  pedigreed  seed  grains.  Under  no  conditions  does  a 
member  of  the  Association  dare  charge  more  than  twice  the 
regular  price  of  common  grains  for  the  select  seed  grain.  For 
instance,  if  oats  were  worth  sixty  cents  a  bushel  on  the  general 
market,  a  member  would  not  dare  charge  more  than  $1.00  per 
bushel  for  his  select  oats,  etc.,  all  along  the  line.  In  this  way 
we  have  been  able  to  establish  pure  bred  grain  centers  in  every 
district  and  township  in  the  state,  so  that  the  farmers  will  have 
near  at  hand  a  place  to  purchase  grains  that  will  yield  from  5 
to  10  bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  common  varieties  handled. 

While  our  first  attempt  was  merely  to  supply  the  farmers 
of  the  state,  we  now  find  that  the  members  of  the  Experiment 
Association  are  supplying  parties  all  over  the  United  States. 
Seed  grains  are  being  shipped  to  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania  and  California.  A  shipment  of  5000  bushels  of 
pedigreed  barley  was  just  made  to  Montana  and  we  now  have 
an  order  for  forty  bushels  of  Golden  Glow  Corn  from  Russia. 
Last  year  the  Experiment  Association  not  only  sold  to  parties 
in  the  United  States  but  they  had  a  trade  with  Mexico,  Japan, 
China,  Austria  and  the  British  Isles.  We  estimate  that  the  Ex- 
-  periment  Association  members  sold  $500,000  worth  of  seed 
grains  last  year. 


The  value  of  this  work  comes  mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  farm- 
ers who  ally  themselves  with  the  movement  either  as  members  or  as 
buyers  receive  great  benefit,  because  they  are  dealing  with,  plant- 
ing, and  studying  pure  bred  grains.  The  work  that  has  been  done 
in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  with  the  corn  would  repay  for  all  of  the 
labor,  but  at  the  same  time  that  that  work  is  being  handled  small 
-grains  are  bringing  equally  large  returns.     There  is  no  reason  why 


CORN  22^ 

a  member  of  this  college  could  not  get  better  results  with  his  corn 
than  his  neighbor  is  getting  if  he  will  put  forth  the  effort. 


Conclusion  on  Breeding  of  Corn 

Corn  is  a  plant  that  must  itself  be  studied  if  the  improvement 
desired  is  to  be  accomplished.  The  same  practices  that  are  followed 
with  other  crops  are  not  followed  with  corn,  at  least  they  should  not 
be.  The  corn  plant  may  be  varied  at  the  desire  of  the  breeder,  but 
in  doing  that  he  should  be  careful  that  self  and  close  pollination  are 
prevented,  for  the  plant  protests  against  that  form  of  mating.  There 
should  be  a  consistent  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  breeder  as  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  corn  is  expected.  This  purpose  should  not  change 
without  sufficient  consideration.  Breeding  for  a  purpose  will  bring 
profit,  and  if  that  work  is  placed  in  an  organization  of  farmers 
which  has  for  its  business  the  marketing  and  improvement  of  grains 
it  will  be  recognized  for  all  that  it  is  worth. 


SOME  PRACTICAL  FARM  USES  OF  THE  CORN  CROP. 

There  are  many,  but  it  is  not  the  attempt  here  to  mention  all  of 
them.  Just  a  few  of  those  which  have  proven  of  value  on  many 
farms  but  against  which  there  seems  to  be  a  prejudice  on  some  other 
farms.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  first  case  cattle  are  interested,  in 
the  second  hogs  are  of  value,  in  the  third  sheep,  and  in  the  last,  man 
himself  receives  the  first  and  direct  benefit. 

The  Silo. 

Why  it  is  that  in  some  sections  there  seems  to  be  such  a  great 
prejudice  against  the  silo  is  more  than  the  enthusiast  in  its  support 
is  able  to  figure  out.  It  may  be  because  it  is  a  new  feature  to  farm 
life.  I  say  it  is  a  new  feature  to  farm  life  for  the  reason  that  on 
many  American  farms  the  subject  had  never  been  considered  until 
the  pasture  began  to  get  short  in  some  of  these  dry  years.  But  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  silo  has  been  in  use  for  a  good  many  years,  not 
exactly  in  the  same  form  that  we  see  it  today,  but  the  idea  of  keeping 
green  material  in  a  fresh  condition  by  keeping  the  air  away  from  it 


CORN  231 

was  used.  In  times  past  holes  were  made  in  the  ground  for  the  pre- 
servation of  material  of  this  kind. 

The  essentials  of  a  good  silo  are  few  but  they  are  essential.  The 
first  one  is  that  it  be  air  tight.  Not  long  ago  a  letter  came  from  a 
man  in  a  corn  belt  state  asking  if  there  would  not  be  some  benefit 
in  making  the  silo  with  ventilation  at  the  bottom.  There  should  be 
no  ventilation  whatever.  If  there  is,  the  whole  object  of  the  work 
is  turned  aside,  for  the  secret  of  keeping  the  green  corn  is  in  pre- 
venting air  from  touching  it.  So  the  silo  must  be  air  tight  except 
for  the  top.  Second  it  should  be  of  sufficient  height  to  allow  the  sil- 
age to  pack  well  therein.  For  the  silo  of  average  circumference  the 
height  should  be  about  thirty  feet.  Then  the  silo  should  be  smooth 
on  the  inside.  The  objection  to  the  square  silo  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  silage  is  not  able  to  settle  as  well  in  it  as  in  the  round  form.  The 
silage  cannot  be  placed  back  in  the  corners  very  well.  One  man  in 
Wisconsin  whose  work  has  come  under  the  writer's  attention  made 
the  square  corners  on  the  inside  round  by  filling  in  with  extra  lum- 
ber. He  claimed  an  advantage  to  this  in  the  fact  that  he  could  build 
to  the  side  of  the  silo  where  it  was  square.  It  should  be  remembered 
however,  that  the  purpose  of  the  silo  is  for  silage,  and  that  mission 
should  not  be  sacrificed  for  any  other  convenience.  As  to  the  ma- 
terial out  of  which  a  silo  should  be  built  there  is  much  discussion.  It 
is  the  best  opinion,  however,  that  there  is  little  need  for  worry  on 
the  point  of  material,  providing  the  other  points  are  watched.  There 
are  successes  in  stave  silos,  in  cement  silos,  in  hollow  block  silos,  and 
in  most  other  kinds.  The  failure  usually  comes  when  some  of  the 
work  of  filling  it  is  neglected. 

Filling  is  a  matter  of  experience.  Special  machinery  is  needed 
for  the  work.  No  estimate  of  the  expense  can  be  given  that  would 
apply  to  all  sections,  but  the  expense  is  not  large.  The  silage  cutter 
will  usually  cut  the  stalks  in  pieces  about  2%  to  3  inches  long.  These 
go  up  to  the  top  of  the  silo  by  a  carrier,  and  then  comes  the  import- 
ant work.  It  is  assumed  that  the  corn  is  cut  from  the  field  just  as 
the  lower  leaves  are  beginning  to  turn  yellow.  If  the  corn  is  har- 
vested later  than  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  water  to  the  cut 
material.  As  the  silage  is  run  into  the  silo  it  will  fall  in  one  place 
and  if  left  there  for  any  length  of  time  will  settle  in  a  very  unsatis- 
factory manner.  So  it  is  necessary  to  have  within  the  silo  during 
the  operation  one  man,  or  two  men  if  possible,  who  shall  see  to  it 


CORN  .  233 

that  the  silage  is  well  distributed  all  of  the  time.  One  farmer  ex- 
presses it  by  saying  that  he  likes  to  have  his  silage  kept  the  shape  of 
a  saucer  ready  for  the  cup.  That  is,  hollowed  a  little  near  the  cen- 
ter. And  all  of  it  should  be  tramped  very  thoroughly.  Too  much 
care  cannot  be  given  this  point.  Of  course  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
job  is  not  an  easy  one,  and  it  will  require  proficient  help. 

After  this  is  done  there  is  no  need  for  further  work.  It  does 
not  matter  whether  there  is  a  roof  on  the  silo  or  not.  The  top  of  the 
silage  will  spoil  anyway  and  must  be  removed  when  the  time  for 
feeding  comes.  Careful  feeding  on  good  silage  will  pay.  This  ap- 
plies especially  to  cattle.  The  Dairy  farm  that  goes  without  the  silo 
is  not  making  the  money  that  is  possible  for  it  to  make.  It  is  a  little 
outside  of  our  province  to  suggest  how  to  feed  the  silage  but  the  ex- 
perience of  men  where  ever  dairy  cattle  are  raised  give  testimony 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  profitable  if  fed  judiciously,  and  there  is  good 
'  testimony  coming  from  all  of  the  forms  of  live  stock  to  this  same  ef- 
fect. 

Hogging  Down  Corn. 

The  turning  of  the  hogs  to  the  corn  is  becoming  more  and  more 
used  in  sections  where  heretofore  all  of  the  corn  was  thoroughly 
husked  and  fed  to  the  stock  in  their  pens.  That  speaks  for  its  de- 
sirability and  profitableness.  Some  farmers  claim  that  this  method 
is  a  slovenly  one  and  in  a  way  it  is,  but  the  returns  come  more 
quickly  and  the  farm  looks  as  neat  as  where  other  methods  are  fol- 
lowed. So  the  practice  cannot  be  criticised  very  strongly.  The 
following  figures  will  indicate  somewhat  the  profitableness  of  the 
method  of  hogging  down  the  corn.  They  are  given  by  Mr.  C.  A. 
Waugh,  of  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Without  counting  the  value  of  the  manure,  or  the  cost  of  the 
labor  saved  in  feeding  the  175  pigs  that  were  fed  by  him,  the  ac- 
counts look  as  follows: 

175  pigs  cost $  967.00 

14  tons  of  ear  corn  at  $1  cwt 280.00 

15  acres  of  clover ;  $15  per  acre 225.00 

5  acres  wood  pasture,  at  $10 50.00 

12  acres  of  corn,  35  cwt.  per  acre ;  55c  per  cAvt 231.00 

Total  expense $1,753.00 


234 


CORN 


I    t. 
<u 

< 
►J 


CORN  235 

*135  hogs,  208  lbs,  at  $8.40,  less  shipping  expense $2,260.29 

32  hogs,  168  lbs.,  at  $8.00 448.80 

2  hogs,  160  lbs.,  at  $8.00 25.60 

Total  receipts -. $2,734.69 

PROFIT $    981.69 

Some  of  the  pigs  were  on  hand  from  the  farm  breeding,  but 
others  were  bought.  All  were  figured  in  at  the  cost  of  those  pur- 
chased. The  method  of  feeding  included  ear  corn  and  clover  as  well 
as  the  field  corn.  Mr.  "Waugh  further  figures  that  the  following  val- 
ues must  be  taken  into  consideration: 

Grain,  saved  on  labor $      75.60 

Value  of  excrement 108.00 

Which  would  make  a  total  profit  of $1,166.29 

There  are  many  turns  that  shorten  labor.  It  seems  as  if  this 
way  of  feeding  some  of  the  corn  is  one  of  those  turns.  The  greatest 
waste  occurs  where  there  is  too  much  land  turned  over  to  the  hogs. 
In  the  above  work  six  acres  were  given  to  the  hogs  at  a  time.  When 
that  was  used  the  other  six  acres  were  turned  over  to  them.  These 
figures  certainly  are  suggestive,  and  are  worth  the  study. 


Lambs  in  the  Corn  Field. 

This  is  a  new  form  in  the  feeding  business,  but  it  is  successful 
especially  where  lambs  may  be  bought  from  the  market  at  a  reason- 
able price.  For  this  work  it  is  necessary  to  think  ahead  of  time. 
About  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn  rape  should  be 
sown.  This  will  grow  rapidly  for  there  is  no  crop  on  the  farm  that 
develops  in  so  short  a  time  as  rape.  When  it  is  time  to  turn  in  the 
lambs  the  rape  will  be  just  right. 

The  lambs  should  be  given  access  to  the  field  just  after  the  silks 
have  done  this  work  year  after  year.  The  lambs  will  eat  off  the 
silks,  they  will  clean  the  field  of  weeds,  and  the  rape  goes  to  make 
the  feed  that  much  more  balanced.  The  lambs  will  find  all  the  feed 
that  they  can  use  for  quite  a  while  just  off  of  the  Aveeds,  the  lower 
leaves  of  the  corn  plant,  the  silks,  and  the  rape.    When  it  seems  best 


236  CORN 

to  teach  the  lambs  to  eat  the  ear  corn  turn  in  a  few  old  ewes.  They 
know  what  the  ear  corn  is  and  how  to  get  it,  and  it  will  be  but  a 
few  hours  until  the  younger  generation  will  be  after  the  ear  corn 
in  just  the  right  way. 

This  is  another  great  saver  of  money  in  harvesting  the  corn 
crop.  All  that  is  necessary  to  finish  the  work  of  harvesting  the  crop 
is  to  run  a  drag  or  float  over  the  field  to  lay  the  rest  of  the  corn 
flat,  and  the  sheep  will  do  the  harvesting.  The  field  is  left  in  the 
very  best  condition  for  working  the  next  season. 

Seed  Corn  a  Specialty. 

This  heading  brings  up  a  question  that  deserves  more  and  more 
attention  as  the  commercial  world  becomes  more  and  more  complex. 
This  is  a  day  of  specialization.  You  have  heard  that  before,  and  in 
some  places  the  idea  is  followed  so  closely  that  folks  are  forgetting 
that  other  mortals  live  on  the  same  land  with  them.  But  the  fact 
remains  that  in  all  forms  of  endeavor  the  man  who  specializes  is  the 
man  who  wins.  Let  just  a  few  examples  suffice.  The  general  store 
used  to  have  the  business  because  one  could  huy  everything  there. 
Today  the  special  store  is  the  one  that  gets  the  trade.  Even  where 
the  large  department  store  is  organized  for  business  it  is  equipped 
with  experts  in  their  lines  so  that  the  work  is  really  specialized.  The 
man  who  enters  the  field  of  engineering  must  be  a  specialist.  It 
used  to  be  that  the  general  man  could  handle  all  sorts  of  jobs,  but 
the  field  today  is  too  large  for  that  practice.  The  automobile  engi- 
neer has  his  place  and  the  farm  engineer,  but  they  have  little  time 
for  thought  along  other  lines. 

■  To  follow  this  a  little  further :  The  farmer  that  does  not  special- 
ize does  not  get  the  most  out  of  his  opportunity.  This  does  not 
mean  that  he  is  to  raise  one  crop  and  only  one.  Such  a  practice 
would  be  ruin  to  the  farm  and  to  the  farmer.  But  it  does  mean  that 
there  should  be  one  feature  about  the  farm  that  stands  out  as  the 
best  of  the  community,  that  will  call  the  attention  of  the  people  to 
the  farm  and  its  products. 

There  is  no  specialty  that  appeals  to  everyone  as  generally  as 
does  the  raising  of  pure  bred  seed  corn  for  the  commercial  trade. 
There  is  no  reason  why  this  trade  should  be  held  in  the  hands  of 


CORN  237 

the  seed  houses  when  all  of  the  corn  must  be  raised  on  the  farms 
anyway.  But  if  this  specialty  is  followed  extra  work  must  be  ex- 
pected. It  may  be  that  that  is  the  reason  why  so  many  farmers,  in 
proportion  to  the  total  number,  chose  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  left 
by  the  farmers  of  the  past  few  decades  and  avoid  specializing.  It 
will  mean  advertising,  and  a  lot  of  it.  And  advertising  will  call  for 
better  work,  and  better  work  will  call  for  more  advertising,  and  so 
the  story  will  go  until  there  is  a  trade  established  that  is  profitable 
beyond  even  expectations.  This  applies  only-  to  the  man  who  works. 
One  example :  There  is  a  community  in  Michigan  where  for  a  good 
many  years  no  new  practices  were  being  introduced  at  all.  Farms 
were  running  just  as  they  had  been  running  for  years  past.  Many 
are  still  running  that  way.  Suddenly  there  appeared  on  the  scene 
a  youth  who,  although  he  had  been  raised  in  the  county,  stood  out 
from  all  of  the  others.  Why?  Because  he  was  advertising  seed 
wheat  for  sale,  and  he  was  selling  it,  too.  Beside  the  road  he  raised 
some  of  the  wheat.  Every  year  it  was  a  perfect  field  to  look  upon. 
Every  year  he  sold  more  seed  wheat.  Finally  he  advertised  that  all 
of  the  seed  wheat  which  he  was  selling  was  treated  with  formalin 
for  smut.  Then  he  installed  a  set  of  machines  which  took  care  of 
most  of  the  seed  grading  done  in  the  county.  This  meant  advertis- 
ing. He  had  to  hire  a  regular  stenographer.  More  and  better  work 
was  required  from  him.  Soon  many  of  the  Experiment  Stations 
were  testing  the  seed  that  he  advertised,'  and  that  wheat  was  soon 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  prominent  varieties.  And  in  the  meantime 
he  had  become  wealthy. 

That  sounds  like  a  fairy  story.  Doesn't  it?  It  is,  but  there  are 
fairy  stories  like  this  being  enacted  everywhere  that  energy  is  add- 
ed to  work  seasoned  by  brains.  And  the  corn  business  has  many  a 
fairy  story  connected  with  it.  Most  of  the  men  who  originated  vari- 
eties are  examples.  They  saw  what  others  did  not  see,  and  the  pro- 
fits came  their  way. 

CONCLUSION. 

After  what  has  been  said  there  are  just  a  few  remarks  to  be 
made  by  way  of  review.     They  are : 

1.  It  pays  to  raise  corn. 

2.  It  pays  to  raise  good  corn. 

3.  It  pays  to  raise  your  own  good  corn. 

If  you  know  what  you  are. about. 


238  CORN 


EXAMINATION 


NOTE  TO  STUDENTS.— These  questions  are  to  be  answered 
independently.  Never  consult  the  text  after  beginning  your  ex- 
amination. Use  thin  white  paper  about  6x9  inches  for  the  exami- 
nation. Number  the  answers  the  same  as  the  questions,  but  never 
repeat  the  question.     Mail  answers  promptly  when  completed. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  corn  smut? 

2.  How  is  it  transmitted  from  plant  to  plant? 

3.  Why  will  not  formalin  kill  it  ? 

4.  Is  smut  of  any  value  for  food  ? 

5.  Is  there  very  much  danger  in  feeding  it? 

6.  How  much  loss  in  corn  is  due  to  rust? 

7.  In  what  way  is  this  like  smut  ? 

8.  Describe  the  work  of  wire  worms. 

9.  What  is  the  main  remedy? 

10.  How  do  the  root  worms  destroy  the  yield  of  corn? 

11.  What  symptoms  will  tell  that  the  root  worms  are  at  work? 

12.  Explain  the  work  and  life  of  the  cut  worms. 


CORN  239 

13.  Of  what  damage  are  root  lice  ? 

14.  How  may  they  be  detected? 

15.  Name  three  other  insects  that  work  on  the  corn  plant. 

16.  Where  do  they  prevail? 

17.  How  are  they  destroyed  or  prevented? 

18.  What  insects  affect  the  grain  of  corn  itself? 

19.  What  may  be  said  of  the  relative  importance  of  diseases  and  in- 

sects as  related  to  the  growth  of  the  com  plant? 

20.  What  is  meant  by  breeding  corn? 

21.  What  about  the  plant  of  corn  makes  control  of  the  breeding  dif- 
ficult? 

22.  What  is  the  most  common  method  of  breeding  corn? 

23.  What  is  meant  by  heredity? 

24.  By  selection? 

25.  What  is  the  unit  of  the  work  in  corn  improvement? 

26.  Why  will  not  the  kernel  that  is  planted  be  expected  to  produce 

kernels  just  like  itself? 

27.  Where  should  the  breeding  block  be  planted  for  best  results? 
Explain. 

28.  What  is  the  ear-to-row  test? 

29.  How  is  it  able  to  tell  whether  an  ear  is  a  high  yielder  or  not? 

30.  Explain  the  use  of  the  breeding  and  multiplying  plots. 

31.  Is  there  an  increased  yield  when      two    distinct    varieties    are 

crossed  ? 


240  CORN 

32.  "What  is  the  reason  for  detasseling  ? 

33.  How  is  the  work  done? 
34. 

^^*    (Explain  in  detail  the  work  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
q/^    ^      in  breeding  pure  strains  of  corn. 

37. 

38.  What  work  have  other  stations  done? 

39.  Where  have  varieties  originated? 

40.  Name  eight  varieties  and  tell  where  they  originated. 

41.  Name  three  benefits  that  might  be  expected  from  a  farmers' 

organization  which  controlled  the  pure  bred  seed  corn  of  a  cer- 
tain section. 

42.  What  does  it  seem  to  you  might  be  done  by  every  farmer  who 

raises  corn,  that  his  corn  might  be  improved? 

43.  Explain  the  silo,  as  to  its  purpose  and  how  that  is  accomplished? 

44.  What  danger  would  there  be  in  allowing  air  to  enter  the  doors? 

45.  What  are  the  points  in  filling  that  need  special  attention? 

46.  Is  hogging  down  corn  ever  beneficial?     Explain. 

47.  Wherein  may  the  field  of  corn  be  of  use  to  the  lambs? 

48.  What  are  the  essentials  in  the  character  of  a  man  who  wants  to 

make  a  success  of  seed  corn  as  a  specialty? 

49.  What  part  would  advertising  play  in  the  woi-k? 


CORN  241 

50.  "Where  would  advertising  pay,  that  is  where  would  you  adver- 
tise ?  Make  out  three  advertisements  for  a  farm  paper,  any  one 
of  which  would  answer  your  purposes  if  you  were  selling  high 
grade  seed  corn  each  year. 


WRITE  THIS  AT  THE  END  OF  YOUR  EXAMINATION. 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  questions  were  answered  en- 
tirely by  me. 

Signed 

Address 


_a- 


